Moral judgements of errors by AI systems and humans in civil and criminal law

References

• Ahn, Michael J., and Yu-Che Chen. 2022. “Digital Transformation toward AI-augmented Public Administration: The Perception of Government Employees and the Willingness to Use AI in Government.” Government Information Quarterly 39 (2): 101664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2021.101664.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amoroso, Daniele, and Guglielmo Tamburrini. 2021. “The Human Control Over Autonomous Robotic Systems: What Ethical and Legal Lessons for Judicial Uses of AI?” In New Pathways to Civil Justice in Europe: Challenges of Access to Justice, edited by X. Kramer, A. Biard, J. Hoevenaars, and E. Themeli, 23–42. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66637-8_2.
   Google Scholar
• Angwin, Julia, Jeff Larson, Surya Mattu, and Lauren Kirchner. 2016. “Machine Bias: There’s Software Used across the Country to Predict Future Criminals. And it’s Biased Against Blacks”. ProPublica. Accessed April 14, 2023. https://www.propublica.org/article/machine-bias-risk-assessments-in-criminal-sentencing.
   Google Scholar
• Barrington, Sarah, and Hany Farid. 2023. “A Comparative Analysis of Human and AI Performance in Forensic Estimation of Physical Attributes.” Scientific Reports 13 (1): 4784. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31821-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton, Dominic, Jonathan Woetzel, Jeongmin Seong, and Qinzheng Tian. 2017. Artificial Intelligence: Implications for China. McKinsey & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Basile, Fabio. 2019. “Intelligenza Artificiale e Diritto Penale: Quattro Possibili Percorsi di Indagine.” Diritto Penale e Uomo 10:1–33. https://dirittopenaleuomo.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/IA-diritto-penale.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Buolamwini, Joy, and Timnit Gebru. 2018. “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification.” In Proceedings of the 1st Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency (Proceedings of Machine Learning Research), Vol. 81, edited by Sorelle A. Friedler and Christo Wilson, 77–91. MIT Media Lab 75 Amherst St. Cambridge, MA 02139: PMLR. https://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwini18a.html.
   Google Scholar
• Candrian, Cindy, and Anne Scherer. 2022. “Rise of the Machines: Delegating Decisions to Autonomous AI.” Computers in Human Behavior 134: 107308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Challen, Robert, Joshua Denny, Martin Pitt, Luke Gompels, Tom Edwards, and Krasimira Tsaneva-Atanasova. 2019. “Artificial Intelligence, Bias and Clinical Safety.” BMJ Quality & Safety 28 (3): 231–237. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2018-008370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chander, Anupam. 2016. “The Racist Algorithm.” Michigan Law Review 115:1023. https://repository.law.umich.edu/mlr/vol115/iss6/13.
   Google Scholar
• Chugunova, Marina, and Daniela Sele. 2022. “We and it: An Interdisciplinary Review of Experimental Evidence on How Humans Interact with Machines.” Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics 99:101897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2022.101897.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciampi, Costantino. 1982. “Intelligenza Artificiale e Sistemi Informativi Giuridici.” Informatica e Diritto 8 (2): 79–91. http://www.ittig.cnr.it/EditoriaServizi/AttivitaEditoriale/InformaticaEDiritto/Ciampi.Ied.2-1982.html.
   Google Scholar
• Coeckelbergh, Mark. 2020. “Artificial Intelligence, Responsibility Attribution, and a Relational Justification of Explainability.” Science and Engineering Ethics 26 (4): 2051–2068. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-019-00146-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davenport, Thomas H., and Rajeev Ronanki. 2018. “Artificial Intelligence for the Real World.” Harvard Business Review 96 (1): 108–116.
   Google Scholar
• Dressel, Julia, and Hany Farid. 2018. “The Accuracy, Fairness, and Limits of Predicting Recidivism.” Science Advances 4 (1): eaao5580. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aao5580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan, Yanqing, John S. Edwards, and Yogesh K. Dwivedi. 2019. “Artificial Intelligence for Decision Making in the Era of Big Data – Evolution, Challenges and Research Agenda.” International Journal of Information Management 48:63–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2019.01.021.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durante, Massimo. 2007. “Intelligenza Artificiale. Applicazioni giuridiche.” In AA. VV. Digesto Italiano. Terza appendice di aggiornamento della IV edizione. Discipline Privatistiche, Vol. 2, 714–724. Torino: Utet.
   Google Scholar
• Feier, Till, Jan Gogoll, and Matthias Uhl. 2021. “Hiding Behind Machines: When Blame is Shifted to Artificial Agents.” ArXiv 2101.11465.
   Google Scholar
• Feier, Till, Jan Gogoll, and Matthias Uhl. 2022. “Hiding Behind Machines: Artificial Agents May Help to Evade Punishment.” Science and Engineering Ethics 28 (2): 19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-022-00372-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fügener, Andreas, Jörn Grahl, Alok Gupta, and Wolfgang Ketter. 2022. “Cognitive Challenges in Human–Artificial Intelligence Collaboration: Investigating the Path toward Productive Delegation.” Information Systems Research 33 (2): 678–696. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3368813.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grey, Heather, and Kurt Grey. 2007. “Dimensions of Mind Perception.” Science 315 (5812): 619. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1134475.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grey, Kurt, Liane Young, and Adam Waytz. 2012. “Mind Perception is the Essence of Morality.” Psychological Inquiry 23 (2): 101–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2012.651387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grgić-Hlača, Nina, Elissa M. Redmiles, Krishna P. Gummadi, and Adrian Weller. 2018. “Human Perceptions of Fairness in Algorithmic Decision Making: A Case Study of Criminal Risk Prediction.” In Proceedings of the 2018 World Wide Web Conference (WWW ‘18), 903–912. International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee, Republic and Canton of Geneva, CHEhttps://doi.org/10.1145/3178876.3186138.
   Google Scholar
• Guidi, Stefano, Enrica Marchigiani, Sergio Roncato, and Oronzo Parlangeli. 2021. “Human Beings and Robots: Are there Any Differences in the Attribution of Punishments for the Same Crimes?” Behaviour & Information Technology 40 (5): 445–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2021.1905879.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hidalgo, César A., Diana Orghian, Jordi Albo Canals, Filipa De Almeida, and Natalia Martin. 2021. How Humans Judge Machines. Floor Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/13373.001.0001.
   Google Scholar
• Kehl, Danielle L., and Samuel A. Kessler. 2017. “Algorithms in the Criminal Justice System: Assessing the Use of Risk Assessments in Sentencing.” In Responsive Communities Initiative. Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society, Harvard Law School 2. https://cyber.harvard.edu/publications/2017/07/Algorithms.
   Google Scholar
• Kerikmäe, Tanel, and Evelin Pärn-Lee. 2021. “Legal Dilemmas of Estonian Artificial Intelligence Strategy: In between of E-society and Global Race.” Ai & Society 36 (2): 561–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-020-01009-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkpatrick, Keith. 2017. “It’s Not the Algorithm, it’s the Data.” Communications of the ACM 60 (2): 21–23. https://doi.org/10.1145/3022181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Königs, Peter. 2022. “Artificial Intelligence and Responsibility Gaps: What is the Problem?” Ethics and Information Technology 24 (3): 36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-022-09643-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langer, Markus, Cornelius J. König, and Maria Papathanasiou. 2019. “Highly Automated Job Interviews: Acceptance under the Influence of Stakes.” International Journal of Selection and Assessment 27 (3): 217–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijsa.12246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levinson, Jesse, Jake Askeland, Jan Becker, Jennifer Dolson, David Held, Soeren Kammel, J. Zico Kolter, et al. 2011. “Towards Fully Autonomous Driving: Systems and Algorithms.” In 2011 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), 163–168. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1109/IVS.2011.5940562.
   Google Scholar
• Lima, Gabriel, Nina Grgić-Hlača, and Meeyoung Cha. 2021. “Human Perceptions on Moral Responsibility of AI: A Case Study in AI-assisted Bail Decision-making.” In Proceedings of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Yokohama, Japan) (CHI ‘21). Article 235. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3411764.3445260.
   Google Scholar
• Lucatuorto, Pier Luigi M. 2006. “Artificial Intelligence and Law: Judicial Applications of Expert Systems (Intelligenza Artificiale e Diritto: Le Applicazioni Giuridiche dei Sistemi Esperti).” Cyberspace and Law (Ciberspazio e Diritto) 7 (2): 219–242. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1158387.
   Google Scholar
• Luciani, Massimo. 2018. “La Decisione Giudiziaria Robotica.” Rivista AIC 3 (3): 22. https://www.rivistaaic.it/images/rivista/pdf/3_2018_Luciani.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Malle, Bertram F., Stuti Thapa Magar, and Matthias Scheutz. 2019. “AI in the Sky: How People Morally Evaluate Human and Machine Decisions in a Lethal Strike Dilemma.” In Robotics and Well-Being, edited by Maria Isabel Aldinhas Ferreira, João Silva Sequeira, Gurvinder Singh Virk, Mohammad Osman Tokhi, and Endre E. Kadar, 111–133. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12524-0_11.
   Google Scholar
• Matthias, Andreas. 2004. “The Responsibility Gap: Ascribing Responsibility for the Actions of Learning Automata.” Ethics and Information Technology 6 (3): 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-004-3422-1.
   Google Scholar
• Merritt, Tim R., Kian Boon Tan, Christopher Ong, Aswin Thomas, Teong Leong Chuah, and Kevin McGee. 2011. “Are Artificial Team-mates Scapegoats in Computer Games.” In Proceedings of the ACM 2011 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China) (CSCW ‘11), 685–688. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/1958824.1958945.
   Google Scholar
• Munch, Lauritz, Jakob Mainz, and Jens Christian Bjerring. 2023. “The Value of Responsibility Gaps in Algorithmic Decision-making.” Ethics and Information Technology 25 (1): 21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-023-09699-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarro, Jordan, François Osiurak, Sandrine Ha, Guillaume Communay, Eleonore Ferrier-Barbut, Arnaud Coatrine, Vivien Gaujoux, et al. 2022. “Development of the Smart Tools Proneness Questionnaire (STP-Q): An Instrument to Assess the Individual Propensity to Use Smart Tools.” Ergonomics 65 (12): 1639–1658. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2022.2048895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parlangeli, Oronzo, Maria C. Caratozzolo, and Stefano Guidi. 2014. “Multitasking and Mentalizing Machines: How the Workload can have Influence on the System Comprehension.” In Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics, 11th International Conference, EPCE, Held as Part of HCI International, edited by D. Harris, 50–58. Crete: Heraklion. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07515-0_6.
   Google Scholar
• Santoni de Sio, Filippo, and Giulio Mecacci. 2021. “Four Responsibility Gaps with Artificial Intelligence: Why they Matter and How to Address Them.” Philosophy & Technology 34 (4): 1057–1084. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-021-00450-x.
   Google Scholar
• Shank, Daniel B., Alyssa DeSanti, and Timothy Maninger. 2019. “When are Artificial Intelligence versus Human Agents Faulted for Wrongdoing? Moral Attributions after Individual and Joint Decisions.” Information, Communication & Society 22 (5): 648–663. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1568515.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• State vs Loomis. 2017. “Wisconsin Supreme Court requires warning before use of algorithmic risk assessments in sentencing.” Harvard Law Review, Criminal Law 130 (5): 8. https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-130/state-v-loomis/.
   Google Scholar
• Surden, Harry. 2019. “Artificial Intelligence and Law: An Overview.” Georgia State University Law Review 35:19–22. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3411869.
   Google Scholar
• Susskind, Richard. 2012a. “Technology and the Law.” In A Companion to the Philosophy of Technology, edited by J. Friis, S. Pedersen, and V. Hendricks. London: Wiley-Blackwell. https://philpapers.org/rec/SUSTAT-2.
   Google Scholar
• Susskind, Richard. 2012b. “Artificial Intelligence, Expert Systems and Law.” The Denning Law Journal 5:105–116. https://doi.org/10.5750/dlj.v5i1.196.
   Google Scholar
• Tischbirek, Alexander. 2020. “Artificial Intelligence and Discrimination: Discriminating Against Discriminatory Systems.” In Regulating Artificial Intelligence, edited by T. Wischmeyer and T. Rademacher, 103–121. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32361-5_5.
   Google Scholar
• Topol, Eric J. 2019. “High-performance Medicine: The Convergence of Human and Artificial Intelligence.” Nature medicine 25 (1): 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-018-0300-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Bingcheng, Pei-Luen Patrick Rau, and Tianyi Yuan. 2023. “Measuring User Competence in Using Artificial Intelligence: Validity and Reliability of Artificial Intelligence Literacy Scale.” Behaviour & Information Technology 42 (9): 1324–1337. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2022.2072768.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, Abigail, Courtney Stefanik, and Daniel B. Shank. 2022. “How do People Judge the Immorality of Artificial Intelligence versus Humans Committing Moral Wrongs in Real-World Situations?” Computers in Human Behavior Reports 8:100229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100229.
   Google Scholar