Loneliness, Gender, and Parasocial Interaction: A Uses and Gratifications Approach

References

• Aging Research Unit . ( 2003 ). The consequences of financial difficulties for the lives of the elderly: Selected findings from national survey . Retrieved February 27, 2006, from the Myers-JDC-Brookdale Institute Web site: http://brookdale-en1.pionet.com/default.asp
   Google Scholar
• Beck , A. T. , & Young , J. E. ( 1978, September ). College blues . Psychology Today , 12 ( 4 ), 80 – 95 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , R. A. , & Daly , J. A. ( 1985 ). Some communicator correlates of loneliness . Southern Speech Communication Journal , 50 , 121 – 142 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , R. A. , & Gonzalez , M. C. ( 1988 ). Loneliness, negative life events, and the provisions of social relationships . Communication Quarterly , 36 , 1 – 15 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , R. A. , & Roloff , M. E. ( 1991 ). Making a love connection: Loneliness and communication competence in the dating marketplace . Communication Quarterly , 39 , 58 – 74 .
   Google Scholar
• Berger , C. R. , & Bell , R. A. ( 1988 ). Plans and the initiation of social relationships . Human Communication Research , 15 , 217 – 235 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowlby , J. ( 1973 ). Affectional bonds: Their nature and origin . In R. S. Weiss (Ed.), Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation (pp. 38 – 53 ). Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Canary , D. J. , & Spitzberg , B. H. ( 1993 ). Loneliness and media gratification . Communication Research , 20 , 800 – 821 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Challenging perceptions of later life . ( 2004 , September ). Cross national perspectives on loneliness and isolation . Symposia session presented at the 33rd annual scientific meeting of the British Society of Gerontology , Roehampton , London , England .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. ( 1997 ). Parasocial interaction and romantic attraction: Gender and dating status differences . Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media , 4 , 516 – 529 .
   Google Scholar
• Cramer , K. M. , & Barry , J. E. ( 1999 ). Conceptualizations and measures of loneliness: A comparison of subscales . Personality and Individual Differences , 27 , 491 – 502 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer , K. M. , Ofosu , H. B. , & Barry , J. E. ( 2000 ). An abbreviated form of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults . Personality and Individual Differences , 28 , 1125 – 1131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong-Gierveld , J. ( 1987 ). Developing and testing a model of loneliness . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 53 , 119 – 128 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong-Gierveld , J. ( 1989 ). Personal relationships, social support, and loneliness . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 6 , 197 – 221 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Jong-Gierveld , J. , & Raadschelders , J. ( 1982 ). Types of loneliness . In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 105 – 119 ). New York : John Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• DiTommaso , E. , & Spinner , B. ( 1993 ). The development and initial validation of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA) Personality and Individual Differences , 14 , 127 – 134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiTommaso , E. , & Spinner , B. ( 1997 ). Social and emotional loneliness: A reexamination of Weiss' typology of loneliness . Personality and Individual Differences , 22 , 417 – 427 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duck , S. , Pond , K. , & Leatham , G. ( 1994 ). Loneliness and the evaluation of relational events . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 11 , 253 – 276 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dykstra , P. A. , van Tilburg , T. G. , & de Jong-Gierveld , J. ( 2005 ). Changes in older adult loneliness: Results from a seven-year longitudinal study . Research on Aging , 27 , 725 – 747 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finn , S. , & Gorr , M. B. ( 1988 ). Social isolation and social support as correlates of television viewing motivations . Communication Research , 15 , 135 – 158 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer , C. S. (1982). To dwell among friends: Personal networks in town and city . Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Giles , D. C. ( 2002 ). Parasocial interaction: A review of the literature and a model for future research . Media Psychology , 4 , 279 – 305 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross , E. F. ( 2004 ). Adolescent Internet use: What we expect, what teens report . Applied Developmental Psychology , 25 , 633 – 649 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanushek , E. A. , & Jackson , J. E. ( 1977 ). Statistical methods for social scientists . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hawken , L. , Duran , R. L. , & Kelly , L. ( 1991 ). The relationship of interpersonal communication variables to academic success and persistence in college . Communication Quarterly , 39 , 297 – 308 .
   Google Scholar
• Helgeson , V. S. ( 1994 ). Long-distance romantic relationships: Sex differences in adjustment and breakup . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 20 , 254 – 265 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horton , D. , & Wohl , R. R. , ( 1956 ). Mass communication and para-social interaction: Observations on intimacy at a distance . Psychiatry , 19 , 215 – 229 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , D. C. ( 1992 ). Parental divorce, family conflict and friendship networks . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 9 , 219 – 235 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz , E. , Blumler , J. G. , & Gurevitch , M. ( 1974 ). Utilization of mass communication by the individual . In J. G. Blumler & E. Katz (Eds.), The uses of mass communications: Current perspectives on gratifications research (pp. 19 – 32 ). Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick , S. , & Alter , S. ( 2006 ). Mood adjustment to social situations through mass media use: How men ruminate and women dissipate angry moods . Human Communication Research , 32 , 58 – 73 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy , M. R. ( 1979 ). Watching TV news as para-social interaction . Journal of Broadcasting , 23 , 69 – 80 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPherson , M. , Smith-Lovin , L. , & Brashears , M. E. ( 2006 ). Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades . American Sociological Review , 71 , 353 – 375 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McQuillen , J. S. ( 2003 ). The influence of technology on the initiation of interpersonal relationships . Education , 123 , 616 – 623 .
   Google Scholar
• Messina , J. J. , & Messina , C. M. ( 1999-2007 ). Tools for coping series . Retrieved on November 15, 2003, from http://www.coping.org .
   Google Scholar
• Mikulincer , M. , & Segal , J. ( 1990 ). A multidimensional analysis of the experience of loneliness . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 7 , 209 – 230 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore , J. A. , & Sermat , V. ( 1974 ). Relationship between self-actualization and self-reported loneliness . Canadian Counselor , 8 , 194 – 196 .
   Google Scholar
• Papacharissi , Z. , & Rubin , A. M. ( 2000 ). Predictors of Internet use . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 44 , 175 – 196 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkes , C. M. ( 1973 ). Separation anxiety: An aspect of the search for a lost object . In R. S. Weiss (Ed.), Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation (pp. 51 – 67 ). Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Peplau , L. A. , Miceli , M. , & Morasch , B. ( 1982 ). Loneliness and self-evaluation . In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 135 – 151 ). New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Peplau , L. A. , & Perlman , D. (Eds.) ( 1982 ). Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Perlman , D. , & Peplau , L. A. ( 1981 ). Toward a social psychology of loneliness . In R. Gilmour & S. Duck (Eds.), Personal relationships: Vol. 3. Personal relationships in disorder (pp. 31 – 56 ). London : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Perse , E. M. , & Rubin , A. M. ( 1990 ). Chronic loneliness and television use . Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media , 34 , 37 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perse , E. M. , & Rubin , R. B. ( 1989 ). Attribution in social and parasocial relationships . Communication Research , 16 , 59 – 77 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinquart , M. (2003). Loneliness in married, widowed, divorced, and never-married older adults. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 20, 31–53.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinquart , M. , & Sörensen , S. ( 2001 ). Influences on loneliness in older adults: A meta-analysis . Basic & Applied Social Psychology , 23 , 245 – 266 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinking , K. , & Bell , R. A. ( 1991 ). Relationships among loneliness, communication competence, and career success in a state bureaucracy: A field study of the “Lonely at the Top” maxim . Communication Quarterly , 39 , 358 – 373 .
   Google Scholar
• Rotenberg , K. J. ( 1998 ). Stigmatization of transitions in loneliness . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 15 , 565 – 576 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. M. , & Perse , E. M. ( 1987 ). Audience activity and soap opera involvement: A uses and effects investigation . Human Communication Research , 14 , 246 – 268 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. M. , Perse , E. M. , & Powell , R. A. ( 1985 ). Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television viewing . Human Communication Research , 12 , 155 – 180 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin , A. M. , & Rubin , R. B. ( 1985 ). Interface of personal and mediated communication: A research agenda . Critical Studies in Mass Communication , 2 , 36 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubin , R. B. , & McHugh , M. P. ( 1987 ). Development of parasocial interaction relationships . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 31 , 279 – 292 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , D. ( 1982 ). The measurement of loneliness . In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A source book of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 305 – 318 ). New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Russell , D. ( 1996 ). UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure . Journal of Personality Assessment , 66 , 20 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , D. , Cutrona , C. E. , Rose , J. , & Yurko , K. ( 1984 ). Social and emotional loneliness: An examination of Weiss's typology of loneliness . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 46 , 1313 – 1321 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , D. , Peplau , L. A. , & Cutrona , C. E. ( 1980 ). The revised UCLA Loneliness scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 39 , 472 – 480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , N. , & Sermat , V. ( 1983 ). Measuring loneliness in different relationships . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 44 , 1038 – 1047 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz , N. R. , Jr., & Moore , D. ( 1988 ). Loneliness: Differences across three age levels . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 5 , 275 – 284 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Segrin , C. , & Flora , J. ( 2000 ). Poor social skills are a vulnerability factor in the development of psychological problems . Human Communication Research , 26 , 489 – 514 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sermat , V. ( 1980 ). Some situational and personality correlates of loneliness . In J. Hartog , J. R. Audy , & Y. A. Cohen (Eds.), The anatomy of loneliness (pp. 305 – 318 ). New York : International Universities Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shakespeare , W. ( 1595/2004 ). Romeo and Juliet, Act 2, Scene 2. Retrieved from http://www.tech.mit.edu/Shakespeare/romeo_juliet/romeo_juliet.2.2.html
   Google Scholar
• Short , J. , Williams , E. , & Christie , B. ( 1976 ). Social psychology of telecommunications . London : John Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Vogel , R. D. ( 1994 ). Loneliness and depression and their relation to parasocial interaction . Dissertation Abstracts International , 54 ( 09 ), 3254A .
   Google Scholar
• Walther , J. B. ( 1995 ). Relational aspects of computer-mediated communication: Experimental and longitudinal observations . Organizational Science , 6 , 186 – 203 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walther , J. B. , & Tidwell , L. ( 1996 ). When is mediated communication not interpersonal? In K. M. Galvin & P. Cooper (Eds.), Connections: Readings in relational communication (pp. 300 – 307 ). Los Angles : Roxbury .
   Google Scholar
• Wanzer , M. B. , Booth-Butterfield , M. , & Booth-Butterfield , S. ( 1996 ). Are funny people popular? An examination of humor orientation, loneliness, and social attractiveness . Communication Quarterly , 44 , 42 – 52 .
   Google Scholar
• Weiss , R. S. ( 1973 ). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation . Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wood , J. T. (2007). Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture () , 7th ed.. Belmont , CA : Wadsworth.
   Google Scholar
• Zakahi , W. R. , & Duran , R. L. ( 1982 ). All the lonely people: The relationship among loneliness, communicative competence, and communication anxiety . Communication Quarterly , 30 , 203 – 209 .
   Google Scholar
• Zakahi , W. R. , & Duran , R. L. ( 1985 ). Loneliness, communicative competence, and communication apprehension: Extension and replication . Communication Quarterly , 33 , 50 – 60 .
   Google Scholar
• Zakahi , W. R. , & Goss , B. ( 1995 ). Loneliness and interpersonal decoding skills . Communication Quarterly , 43 , 75 – 85 .
   Google Scholar