Toward a behavioral theory of crowding in outdoor recreation: An evaluation and synthesis of research

References

• Altman , I. 1975 . The Environment and Social Behavior , Monterey, California : Brooks/Cole Publishing Company .
   Google Scholar
• Becker , R. , Niemann , B. and Gates , W. 1979 . “ Displacement of Users Within a River System: Social and Environmental Trade‐offs ” . In Some Recent Products of River Recreation Research , Gen. Tech. Rep. NC‐63 33 – 38 . St. Paul : USDA Forest Service .
   Google Scholar
• Brehm , J. 1966 . A Theory of Psychological Reactance , New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bultena , G. , Field , D. , Womble , P. and Albrecht , D. . Closing the Gates: A Study of Backcountry Use‐Limitation at Mount McKinley National Park . Paper presented at the Second Conference on Scientific Research in the National Parks . Nov. 26‐30 , San Francisco.
   Google Scholar
• Calhoun , J. 1962 . Population Density and Social Pathology . Scientific American , 206 (2) : 139 – 150 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi , S. , Mirjafari , A. and Weaver , H. 1976 . The Concept of Crowding: A Critical Review and Proposal of an Alternative Approach . Environment and Behavior , 8 (3) : 345 – 364 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicchetti , C. and Smith , V. 1973 . Congestion, Quality Deterioration, and Optimal Use: Wilderness Recreation in the Spanish Peaks Primitive Area . Social Science Research , 2 (1) : 15 – 30 .
   Google Scholar
• Dorfman , P. 1979 . Measurement and Meaning of Recreation Satisfaction: A Case Study of Camping . Environment and Behavior , 11 (4) : 483 – 510 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Driver , B. and Bassett , J. 1975 . Defining Conflicts Among River Users: A Case Study of Michigan's Au Sable River . Naturalist , 26 (1) : 19 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Gramann , J. and Burdge , R. 1981a . The Effect of Recreation Goals on Conflict Perception: The Case of Water Skiers and Fishermen . Journal of Leisure Research , 13 (1) : 15 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gramann , J. and Burdge , R. . Social‐Psychological Applications to the Structural Modelling of Crowding in Outdoor Recreation . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Rural Sociological Society . Aug. 19‐22 , Guelph, Ontario.
   Google Scholar
• Heberlein , T. . Density, Crowding, and Satisfaction: Sociological Studies for Determining Carrying Capacities . Proceedings: River Recreation Management and Research Symposium . pp. 67 – 76 . St. Paul, Minnesota : USDA Forest Service . Gen. Tech. Rep. NC‐28,
   Google Scholar
• Heberlein , T. and Vaske , J. 1977 . Crowding and Visitor Conflict on the Bois Brule River , Tech. Rep. WIS WRC 77‐04 Madison, Wisconsin : University of Wisconsin . Water Resources Center,
   Google Scholar
• Heberlein , T. , Alfano , G. , Shelby , B. and Vaske , J. . Expectations, Preferences, and Feeling Crowded in Recreation Activities . Paper presented to the Annual Meeting of the Rural Sociological Society . Aug. 23‐26 , Burlington, Vermont.
   Google Scholar
• Knopf , R. , Driver , B. and Bassett , J. . Motivations for Fishing . Transactions of the Thirty‐Eighth North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference . Washington, D.C.. Wildlife Management Institute .
   Google Scholar
• Lime , D. 1979 . Carrying Capacity . Trends , 16 (2) : 37 – 40 .
   Google Scholar
• Lucas , R. 1964 . Wilderness Perception and Use: The Example of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area . Natural Resources Journal , 3 (3) : 394 – 411 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manheim , H. 1977 . Sociological Research: Philosophy and Methods , Homewood, Illinois : Dorsey Press .
   Google Scholar
• Manning , R. and Ciali , C. 1980 . Recreation Density and User Satisfaction: A Further Exploration of the Satisfaction Model . Journal of Leisure Research , 12 (4) : 329 – 345 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milgram , S. 1970 . The Experience of Living in Cities . Science , 167 March : 1461 – 1468 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson , G. 1974 . Evaluating the Quality of the Wilderness Experience: Congruence Between Perception and Aspiration . Environment and Behavior , 6 (2) : 169 – 193 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proshansky , H. , Ittelson , W. and Rivlin , L. 1970 . “ Freedom of Choice and Behavior in a Physical Setting ” . In Environmental Psychology , Edited by: Proshansky , H. , Ittelson , W. and Rivlin , L. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston .
   Google Scholar
• Rossman , B. and Ulehla , Z. 1977 . Psychological Reward Values Associated With Wilderness Use: A Functional‐Reinforcement Approach . Environment and Behavior , 9 (1) : 41 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , D. and Keating , J. 1979 . Human Crowding and Personal Control: An Integration of the Research . Psychological Bulletin , 86 (4) : 680 – 700 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreyer , R. and Roggenbuck , J. 1978 . The Influence of Experience Expectations on Crowding Perceptions and Social‐Psychological Carrying Capacities . Leisure Sciences , 1 (4) : 373 – 394 .
   Google Scholar
• Shelby , B. 1980 . Crowding Models for Backcountry Recreation . Land Economics , 56 (1) : 43 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmel , G. 1903 . “ Die Grosstadte und das Geistesleben. Reprinted as The Metropolis and Mental Life ” . In New Perspectives on the American Community , third edition , Edited by: Warren , R. 33 – 44 . Chicago : Rand McNally . 1977
   Google Scholar
• Stankey , G. 1973 . Visitor Perception of Wilderness Recreation Carrying Capacity , Res. Pap. INT‐142 Ogden, Utah : USDA Forest Service .
   Google Scholar
• Stokols , D. 1972 . On the Distinction Between Density and Crowding: Some Implications for Future Research . Psychological Review , 79 (3) : 275 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokols , D. 1976 . The Experience of Crowding in Primary and Secondary Environments . Environment and Behavior , 8 (1) : 49 – 86 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titre , J. and Mills , A. . The Differential Effects of Visual and Physical Encounters on Perceived Crowding and Satisfaction . Paper presented at The Leisure Research Symposium of the National Recreation and Park Association . Oct. 25‐27 , Minneapolis.
   Google Scholar
• Wirth , L. 1938 . Urbanism as a Way of Life . American Journal of Sociology , 44 (1) : 1 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Womble , P. and Studebaker , S. 1981 . Crowding in a National Park Campground: Katmai National Monument in Alaska . Environment and Behavior , 13 (5) : 557 – 573 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar