Variations in the Properties of Extractable “Humic Matter” and Associated Kerogen in Sediments through Geologic Time: Their Significance for Precambrian Biological Evolution and Paleoecology

References

• Abelson PH. 1967. Conversion of biochemical to kerogen and n-paraffins. In: Abelson PH, editor. Researches in Geochemistry. Vol. 2, New York: John Wiley & Sons, p. 63–86.
   Google Scholar
• Altermann W, Kazmierczak J. 2003. Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth. Res Microbiol. 154:611–617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amthor JE, Grotzinger JP, Schröder S, Bowring SA, Ramezani J, Martin MW, Matter A. 2003. Extinction of Cloudina and Namacalathus at the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in Oman. Geology. 31:431–434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnaud E, Halverson GP, Shields-Zhou G. 2011. The geological record of Neoproterozoic ice ages. Geol Soc Lond Mem. 36:1–16.
   Google Scholar
• Awramik SM. 1971. Precambrian columnar stromatolite diversity: reflection of metazoan appearance. Science. 174:825–826.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekker A, Holland HD, Wang P-L, Rumble D III, Stein HJ, Hannah JL, Coetzee LL, Beukes NJ. 2004. Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen. Nature. 427:117–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumer M. 1965. Organic pigments: their long-term fate. Science. 149:722–726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bode HB, Zeggel B, Silakowski B, Wenzel SC, Reichenbach H, Müller R. 2003. Steroid biosynthesis in prokaryotes: identification of myxobacterial steroids and cloning of the first bacterial 2,3(S)-oxidosqualene cyclase from the myxobacterium Stigmatella aurantiaca. Mol Microbiol. 47:471–481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bottke WF, Vokrouhlický D, Minton D, Nesvorný D, Morbidelli A, Brasser R, Simonson B, Levison HF. 2012. An Archean heavy bombardment from a destabilized extension of the asteroid belt. Nature. 485:78–81.https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10967
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brasier M, McLoughlin N, Green O, Wacey D. 2006. A fresh look at the fossil evidence for early Archean cellular life. Philos Trans R Soc B. 361:887–902.https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1835
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brocks JJ. 2011. Millimeter-scale concentration gradients of hydrocarbons in Archean shales: Live-oil escape or fingerprint of contamination?. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 75:3196–3213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brocks JJ, Jarrett AJM, Sirantoine E, Kenig F, Moczdłowska M, Porter S, Hope J. 2016. Early sponges and toxic protists: possible sources of cryostane, an age diagnostic biomarker antedating Sturtian Snowball Earth. Geobiology. 14:129–149.https://doi.org/10.1111/gbi.12165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brocks JJ, Logan GA, Buick R, Summons RE. 1999. Archean molecular fossils and the early rise of eukaryotes. Science. 285:1033–1036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budd GE. 2008. The earliest fossil record of the animals and its significance. Philos Trans R Soc B: Biol Sci. 363:1425–1434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buick R. 2008. When did oxygenic photosynthesis evolve?. Philos Trans R Soc B: Biol Sci. 363:2731–2743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byerly GR, Kröner A, Lowe DR, Todt W, Walsh MM. 1996. Prolonged magmatism and time constraints for sediment deposition in the early Archean Barberton greenstone belt: evidence from the Upper Onverwacht and Fig Tree groups. Precambrian Res. 78:125–138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canfield DE, Ngombi-Pemba L, Hammarlund EU, Bengtson S, Chaussidon M, Gauthier-Lafaye F, Meunier A, Riboulleau A, Rollion-Bard C, Rouxel O, Asael D, Pierson-Wickmann A-C, El Albani A. 2013. Oxygen dynamics in the aftermath of the Great Oxidation of Earth's atmosphere. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA (PNAS). 110:16736–16741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Senesi N, Schnitzer M. 1977. Information provided on humic substances by E4/ E6 ratios. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 41:352–358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloud P. 1976. Beginnings of biospheric evolution and their biogeochemical consequences. Paleobiology. 2:351–387.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen PA, Macdonald FA. 2015. The Proterozoic record of eukaryotes. Paleobiology. 41:610–632.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degens ET. 1969. Biogeochemistry of stable carbon isotopes. In: Eglinton G, Murphy MTJ, editors. Organic geochemistry. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, p. 304–329.
   Google Scholar
• Dymek RF, Klein C. 1988. Chemistry, petrology and origin of banded iron formation lithologies from the 3800 Ma Isua supracrustal belt, west Greenland. Precambrian Res. 39:247–302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ertel JR, Hedges JI. 1983. Bulk chemical and spectroscopic properties of marine and terrestrial humic acids, melanoidins and catechol-based synthetic polymers. In: Christman RF, Gjessing ET, editors. Aquatic and Terrestrial Humic Materials. Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Science (the Butterworth Group), p. 143–163.
   Google Scholar
• Fike DA, Grotzinger JP, Pratt LM, Summons RE. 2006. Oxidation of the Ediacaran ocean. Nature. 444:744–747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fralick P, Davis DW, Kissin SA. 2002. The age of the Gunflint Formation, Ontario, Canada: single zircon U-Pb age determinations from reworked volcanic ash. Can J Earth Sci. 39:1085–1091.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• French KL, Hallmann C, Hope JM, Schoon PL, Zumberge JA, Hoshino Y, Peters CA, George SC, Love GD, Brocks JJ, Buick R, Summons RE. 2015. Reappraisal of hydrocarbon biomakers in Archean rocks. Proc Nat Acad Sci. 112: 5915–5920.
   Google Scholar
• Garrett P. 1970. Phanerozoic stromatolites: noncompetitive ecologic restriction by grazing and burrowing animals. Science. 169:171–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaessner MF. 1984. The Dawn of Animal Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Glikson AY. 2005. Geochemical signatures of Archean to early Proterozoic maria-scale oceanic impact basins. Geology. 33:125–128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gogarten-Boekels M, Hilario E, Gogarten JP. 1995. The effects of heavy meteorite bombardment on the early evolution—the emergence of the three domains of life. Orig Life Evol Biosphys. 25:251–264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham LE, Graham JM, Wilcox LW. 2009. Algae, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
   Google Scholar
• Grotzinger JP, Bowring SA, Saylor BZ, Kaufman AJ. 1995. Biostratigraphic and geochronologic constraints on early animal evolution. Science. 270:598–604.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.270.5236.598
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoering TC. 1965. The extractable organic matter in Precambrian rocks and the problem of contamination. Carnegie Inst Year Book. 64:215–218.
   Google Scholar
• Holland HD. 2006. The oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B: Biol Sci. 361:903–915.https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1838
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horodyski RJ, Knauth LP. 1994. Life on land in the Precambrian. Science. 263:494–498.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.263.5146.494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu KJ, Oberhänsli H, Gao JY, Sun S, Chen H, Krähenbühl U. 1985. “Strangelove ocean” before the Cambrian explosion. Nature. 316:809–811.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA. 1967. Fossil actinomycetes in middle Precambrian glacial varves. Science. 155:1003–1005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA. 1971. Carbonaceous inclusions, sulfides, and “fossil gas bubbles” of presumably biologic origin associated with rafted erratics in Huronian (Precambrian) glacial-lake argillites. J Sediment Petrol. 41:313–315.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson TA. 1973. “Humic” matter in the bitumen of ancient sediments: variations through geologic time. Geology. 1:163–166.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson TA. 1975. “Humic” matter in the bitumen of pre-Phanerozoic and Phanerozoic sediments and its paleobiological significance. Am J Sci. 275:906–953.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA. 1977. A relationship between crystallographic properties of illite and chemical properties of extractable organic matter in pre-Phanerozoic and Phanerozoic sediments. Clays Clay Miner. 25:187–195.https://doi.org/10.1346/CCMN.1977.0250303
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA. 2015a. Ultraviolet radiation-absorbing “humic pigments” of cyanobacteria in microbial mats: their presumptive photoprotective function and relevance to early Precambrian microbial ecology and evolution. Geomicrobiol J. 32:420–432.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA. 2015b. Variations in the abundance of photosynthetic oxygen through Precambrian and Paleozoic time in relation to biotic evolution and mass extinctions: evidence from Mn/Fe ratios. Precambrian Res. 264:30–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA, Fritz P, Drimmie R. 1978. Stable carbon isotope ratios and chemical properties of kerogen and extractable organic matter in pre-Phanerozoic and Phanerozoic sediments—their interrelations and possible paleobiological significance. Chem Geol. 21:335–350.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA, Moore CB. 1976. Secular variations in kerogen structure and carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus concentrations in pre-Phanerozoic and Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks. Chem Geol. 18:107–136.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA, Vlaar S, Nguyen N, Leppard GG, Finan TM. 2015. Effects of bioavailable heavy metal species, arsenic, and acid drainage from mine tailings on a microbial community sampled along a pollution gradient in a freshwater ecosystem. Geomicrobiol J. 32:724–750.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson TA, Nguyen N, Li W-C. 2016. Effects of copper, nickel, and sulphate from the smelters at Sudbury, Ontario (Canada) on microbial communities in lakes. Geomicrobiol J. 34:400–420. doi:10.1080/01490451.2016.1204375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Javaux EJ. 2007. The early eukaryotic fossil record. Adv Exp Med Biol. 607:1–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen S, Droser ML, Gehling JG. 2005. Trace fossil preservation and the early evolution of animals. Palaeogeogr, Palaeoclimatol, Palaeoecol. 220:19–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaneda T. 1991. Iso- and anteiso-fatty acids in bacteria: biosynthesis, function, and taxonomic significance. Microbiol Rev. 55: 288–302.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Karsten U. 2008. Defense strategies of algae and cyanobacteria against solar ultraviolet radiation. In: Amsler CD, editor. Algal chemical ecology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, p. 273–296.
   Google Scholar
• Katz ME, Finkel ZV, Grzebyk D, Knoll AH, Falkowski PG. 2004. Evolutionary trajectories and biogeochemical impacts of marine eukaryotic phytoplankton. Annu Rev Ecol, Evol Syst. 35:523–556.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman AJ, Johnston DT, Farquhar J, Masterson AL, Lyons TW, Bates S, Anbar AD, Arnold GL, Garvin J, Buick R. 2007. Late Archean biospheric oxygenation and atmospheric evolution. Science. 317:1900–1903.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenny R, Knauth LP. 2001. Stable isotope variations in the Neoproterozoic Beck Spring dolomite and Mesoproterozoic Mescal limestone paleokarst: implications for life on land in the Precambrian. Geol Soc Am Bull. 113:650–658.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenrick P, Crane PR. 1997. The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kimura H, Watanabe Y. 2014. Oceanic anoxia at the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary. Geology. 29:995–998.
   Google Scholar
• Knoll AH. 2014. Paleobiological Perspectives on early eukaryotic evolution: Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 2014; 6: a016121. Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
   Google Scholar
• Koeberl C. 2006. The record of impact processes on the early Earth: a review of the first 2.5 billion years. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap. 405:1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Komiya T, Hirata T, Kitajima K, Yamamoto S, Shibuya T, Sawaki Y, Ishikawa T, Shu D, Li Y, Han J. 2008. Evolution of the composition of seawater through geologic time, and its influence on the evolution of life. Gondwana Res. 14:159–174.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyte FT, Shukolyukov A, Lugmair GW, Lowe DR, Byerly GR. 2003. Early Archean spherule beds: chromium isotopes confirm origin through multiple impacts of projectiles of carbonaceous chondrite type. Geology. 31:283–286.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laflamme M, Darroch SAF, Tweedt SM, Peterson KJ, Erwin DH. 2013. The end of the Ediacara biota: extinction, biotic replacement, or Cheshire Cat?. Gondwana Res. 23:558–573.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leo RF, Parker PL. 1966. Branched-chain fatty acids in sediment. Science. 152:649–650.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.152.3722.649
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Logan GA, Hayes JM, Hieshima GB, Summons RE. 1995. Terminal Proterozoic reorganization of biogeochemical cycles. Nature. 376:53–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Love GD, Grosjean E, Stalvies C, Fike DA, Grotzinger JP, Bradley AS, Kelly AE, Bhatia M, Meredith W, Snape CE, Bowring SA, Condon DJ, Summons RE. 2009. Fossil steroids record the appearance of Demospongiae during the Cryogenian period. Nature. 457:718–721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowe DR, Byerly GR. 1999. Stratigraphy of the west-central part of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. In: Lowe DR, Byerly GR, editors. Geologic Evolution of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. Vol. 329. Geological Society of America Special Paper. p. 1–36.
   Google Scholar
• Lyons TW, Reinhard CT, Planavsky NJ. 2014. The rise of oxygen in Earth's early ocean and atmosphere. Nature. 506:307–315.https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margulis L. 1970. Origin of Eukaryotic Cells. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 349.
   Google Scholar
• Margulis L, Walker JCG, Rambler M. 1976. Reassessment of roles of oxygen and ultraviolet light in Precambrian evolution. Nature. 264:620–624.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin RE, Quigg A, Podkovyrov V. 2008. Marine biodiversification in response to evolving phytoplankton stoichiometry. Palaeogeogr, Palaeoclimatol, Palaeoecol. 258:277–291.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin RL, Winters JC, Williams JA. 1963. Distributions of n-paraffins in crude oils and their implications to origin of petroleum. Nature. 199:110–113.https://doi.org/10.1038/199110a0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medvedev PV, Melezhik VA, Filippov MM. 2009. Palaeoproterozoic petrified oil field (Shunga Event). Paleontological J. 43:972–979.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michelutti N, Smol JP. 2016. Visible spectroscopy reliably tracks trends in paleo-production. J Paleolimnology. 56:253–265. doi:10.1007/s10933-016-9921-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris SC. 1985. The Ediacarian biota and early metazoan evolution. Geol Mag. 122:77–81.
   Google Scholar
• Morris SC. 1993. The fossil record and the early evolution of the metazoan. Nature. 361:219–225.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nutman AP, Bennett VC, Friend CRL, Van Kranendonk MJ, Chivas AR. 2016. Rapid emergence of life shown by discovery of 3,700-million-year-old microbial structures. Nature. 537:535–538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oehler JH. 1977. Irreversible contamination of Precambrian kerogen by 14C-labelled organic compounds. Precambrian Res. 4:221–227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parfrey LW, Lahr DJG, Knoll AH, Katz LA. 2011. Estimating the timing of early eukaryotic diversification with multigene molecular clocks. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA (PNAS). 108:13624–13629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Planavsky NJ, Asael D, Hofmann A, Reinhard CT, Lalonde SV, Knudsen A, Wang X, Ossa Ossa F, Pecoits E, Smith AJB, Beukes NJ, Bekker A, Johnson TM, Konhauser KO, Lyons TW, Rouxel OJ. 2014. Evidence for oxygenic photosynthesis half a billion years before the great oxidation event. Nat Geosci. 7:283–286.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Porter SM. 2006. The Proterozoic fossil record of heterotrophic eukaryotes. In: Xiao S, Kaufman AJ, editors. Neoproterozoic Geobiology and Paleobiology. Berlin: Springer. p. 1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Poulton SW, Fralick PW, Canfield DE. 2004. The transition to a sulphidic ocean ∼1.84 billion years ago. Nature. 431:173–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen B, Fletcher IR, Brocks JJ, Kilburn MR. 2008. Reassessing the first appearance of eukaryotes and cyanobacteria. Nature. 455:1101–1104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riding R. 1992. The algal breath of life. Nature. 359:13–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosing MT. 1999. 13C-depleted carbon microparticles in >3700 Ma sea-floor sedimentary rocks from west Greenland. Science. 283:674–676.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.283.5402.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salfeld JC. 1975. Ultraviolet and visible absorption spectra of humic systems. In: Povoledo D, Golterman HL, editors. Humic Substances: Their Structure and Function in the Biosphere (Proceedings of International Meeting, Nieuwersluis, the Netherlands, 29–31 May, 1972): Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen. p. 269–280.
   Google Scholar
• Schidlowski M. 1983. Evolution of photoautotrophy and early atmospheric oxygen levels. Precambrian Res. 20:319–335.https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(83)90079-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schinteie R, Brocks JJ. 2014. Evidence for ancient halophiles? Testing biomarker syngeneity of evaporates from Neoproterozoic and Cambrian strata. Org Geochem. 72:46–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnitzer M, Khan SU. 1972. Humic Substances in the Environment. New York: Marcel Dekker.
   Google Scholar
• Schopf JW. 2006. Fossil evidence of Archean life. Philos Trans R Soc B: Biol Sci. 361:869–885.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schröder S, Grotzinger JP. 2007. Evidence for anoxia at the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary: the record of redox-sensitive trace elements and rare earth elements in Oman. J Geol Soc Lond. 164:175–187.https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492005-022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seilacher A. 1984. Late Precambrian and early Cambrian metazoan: preservational or real extinctions? In: Holland HD, Trendall AF, editors. Patterns of change in earth evolution (Dahlem Konferenzen 1984). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 159–168.
   Google Scholar
• Shorland FB. 1962. The comparative aspects of fatty acid occurrence and distribution. In: Florkin M, Mason HS, editors. Comparative Biochemistry. Vol. 3. New York: Academic Press, p. 1–102.
   Google Scholar
• Smith FC, Glass BP, Simonson BM, Smith JP, Krull-Davatzes AE, Booksh KS. 2016. Shock-metamorphosed rutile grains containing the high-pressure polymorph TiO2-II in four Neoarchean spherule layers. Geology. 44:775–778.https://doi.org/10.1130/G38327.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith JW, Schopf JW, Kaplan IR. 1970. Extractable organic matter in Precambrian cherts. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. 34:659–675.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith RC, Prézelin BB, Baker KS, Bidigare RR, Boucher NP, Coley T, Karentz D, MacIntyre S, Matlick HA, Menzies D, Ondrusek M, Wan Z, Waters KJ. 1992. Ozone depletion: ultraviolet radiation and phytoplankton biology in Antarctic waters. Science. 255:952–959.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson FJ. 1982. Humus Chemistry: Genesis, Composition, Reactions. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Strauss H, Melezhik VA, Lepland A, Fallick AE, Hanski EJ, Filippov MM, Deines YE, Illing CJ, Črne AE, Brasier AT. 2013. Enhanced accumulation of organic matter: the Shunga event. In: Melezhik VA, Prave AR, Hanski EJ, Fallick AE, Lepland A, Kump LR, Strauss H, editors. Reading the Archive of Earth's Oxygenation: Global Events and the Fennoscandian Arctic Russia – Drilling Early Earth Project: Frontiers in Earth Sciences Series. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p. 1195–1273.
   Google Scholar
• Teyssèdre B. 2006. Are the green algae (phylum Viridiplantae) two billion years old? Carnets de Géologie (Notebooks on Geology), Brest, Article 2006/03 (CG2006_A03).
   Google Scholar
• Teyssèdre B. 2007. Precambrian palaeontology in the light of molecular phylogeny—an example: the radiation of the green algae. Biogeosci Discuss. 4:3123–3142.
   Google Scholar
• Thiel V, Jenisch A, Wörheide G, Löwenberg A, Reitner J, Michaelis W. 1999. Mid-chain branched alkanoic acids from “living fossil” demosponges: a link to ancient sedimentary lipids?. Org Geochem. 30:1–14.https://doi.org/10.1016/S0146-6380(98)00200-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe Y, Martini JEJ, Ohmoto H. 2000. Geochemical evidence for terrestrial ecosystems 2.6 billion years ago. Nature. 408:574–578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wille M, Nägler TF, Lehmann B, Schröder S, Kramers JD. 2008. Hydrogen sulphide release to surface waters at the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary. Nature. 453:767–769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar