0
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

The Maintenance Model of Restrictive Practices: A Trauma-Informed, Integrated Model to Explain Repeated Use of Restrictive Practices in Mental Health Care Settings

, MSc, PgDipORCID Icon, , DClinPsy, , PhD & , PhD

References

  • Abderhalden, C., Needham, I., Dassen, T., Halfens, R., Haug, H. J., & Fischer, J. E. (2008). Structured risk assessment and violence in acute psychiatric wards: Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 193(1), 44–50.
  • Albrecht, H.-J. (2016). Legal aspects of the use of coercive measures in psychiatry. In B. Völlm & N. Nedopil (Eds.), The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: legal, ethical and practical challenges (pp. 31–49). Springer.
  • Ashcraft, L., Bloss, M., & Anthony, W. A. (2012). Best practices: The development and implementation of “no force first” as a best practice. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 63(5), 415–417. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.20120p415
  • Askew, L., Fisher, P., & Beazley, P. (2020). Being in a seclusion room: The forensic psychiatric inpatients’ perspective. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 27(3), 272–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12576
  • Ball, J. S., & Links, P. S. (2009). Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: Evidence for a causal relationship. Current Psychiatry Reports, 11(1), 63–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-009-0010-4
  • Baron, S. W., & Forde, D. R. (2020). Childhood trauma, criminogenic social schemas, and violent crime. Deviant Behavior, 41(8), 991–1004. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1596534
  • Barr, L., Wynaden, D., & Heslop, K. (2019). Promoting positive and safe care in forensic mental health inpatient settings: Evaluating critical factors that assist nurses to reduce the use of restrictive practices. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 28(4), 888–898. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12588
  • Belayneh, Z., Chavulak, J., Lee, D. C. A., Petrakis, M., & Haines, T. P. (2024). Prevalence and variability of restrictive care practice use (physical restraint, seclusion and chemical restraint) in adult mental health inpatient settings: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 33(4), 1256–1281. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.17041
  • Bentall, R. P. (2009). Doctoring the mind: Is our current treatment of mental illness really any good? Penguin.
  • Bentall, R. P., Wickham, S., Shevlin, M., & Varese, F. (2012). Do specific early-life adversities lead to specific symptoms of psychosis? A study from the 2007 the adult psychiatric morbidity survey. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 38(4), 734–740. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs049
  • Bergk, J., Einsiedler, B., Flammer, E., & Steinert, T. (2011). A randomized controlled comparison of seclusion and mechanical restraint in inpatient settings. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 62(11), 1310–1317. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.62.11.pss6211_1310
  • Blair, M., & Moulton-Adelman, F. (2015). The engagement model for reducing seclusion and restraint: 13 years later. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 53(3), 39–45. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20150211-01
  • Borckardt, J. J., Madan, A., Grubaugh, A. L., Danielson, C. K., Pelic, C. G., Hardesty, S. J., Hanson, R., Herbert, J., Cooney, H., Benson, A., & Frueh, B. C. (2011). Systematic investigation of initiatives to reduce seclusion and restraint in a state psychiatric hospital. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 62(5), 477–483. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.62.5.pss6205_0477
  • Bowers, L., Stewart, D., Papadopoulos, C., Dack, C., Ross, J., Khanom, H., Jeffery, D. (2011). Inpatient violence and aggression: A literature review. Report from the Conflict and Containment Reduction Research Programme, Kings College, London. www.kcl.ac.uk/iop/depts/hspr/research/ciemh/mhn/projects/litreview/LitRevAgg. pdf.
  • Bowers, L. (2014). Safewards: A new model of conflict and containment on psychiatric wards. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 21(6), 499–508. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12129
  • Bowers, L., Alexander, J., Simpson, A., Ryan, C., & Carr-Walker, P. (2007). Student psychiatric nurses’ approval of containment measures: Relationship to perception of aggression and attitudes to personality disorder. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 44(3), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2005.03.002
  • Bowers, L., James, K., Quirk, A., Simpson, A., Stewart, D., & Hodsoll, J, SUGAR. (2015). Reducing conflict and containment rates on acute psychiatric wards: The Safewards cluster randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 52(9), 1412–1422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.05.001
  • Bowers, L., Stewart, D., Papadopoulos, C., & Iennaco, J. D. (2013). Correlation between levels of conflict and containment on acute psychiatric wards: The City-128 study. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 64(5), 423–430. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201200328
  • Brandford, A. A., & Reed, D. B. (2016). Depression in registered nurses: a state of the science. Workplace Health & Safety, 64(10), 488–511.
  • Brereton, A., & McGlinchey, E. (2020). Self-harm, emotion regulation, and experiential avoidance: A systematic review. Archives of Suicide Research: Official Journal of the International Academy for Suicide Research, 24(sup1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2018.1563575
  • Brodsky, B. S., & Stanley, B. (2008). Adverse childhood experiences and suicidal behavior. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(2), 223–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2008.02.002
  • Brown, J. S., & Tooke, S. K. (1992). On the seclusion of psychiatric patients. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 35(5), 711–721. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(92)90009-f
  • Buchanan-Barker, P., & Barker, P. (2005). Observation: The original sin of mental health nursing. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 12(5), 541–549. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2005.00876.x
  • Care Quality Commission. (2019). Cygnet Whorlton Hall Quality Report. https://www.cqc.org.uk/location/1-894121431/reports
  • Care Quality Commission. (2020). Out of sight – who cares? A review of restraint, seclusion and segregation for autistic people, and people with a learning disability and/or mental health condition.
  • Carr, P. G. (2012). The use of mechanical restraint in mental health: A catalyst for change? Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 19(7), 657–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2012.01912.x
  • Cartwright, J., Lawrence, D., & Hartwright, C. (2021). Improving psychological interventions from the perspective of forensic mental health patients: A meta-synthesis. Journal of Forensic Psychology Research and Practice, 22(2), 113–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/24732850.2021.1945838
  • Chieze, M., Hurst, S., Sentissi, O., & Kaiser, S. (2019). Effects of seclusion and restraint in adult psychiatry: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 491. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00491
  • Chu, S. (2014). What do we know about special observations in the care of psychiatric inpatients? Review of the literature and developments in practise. Ashworth Research Centre.
  • Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., Kliethermes, M., & Murray, L. A. (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(6), 528–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2012.03.007
  • Curran, S. S. (2007). Staff resistance to restraint reduction: Identifying and overcoming barriers. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 45(5), 45–50. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20070501-09
  • Curtis, P., Hillier, B., Souster, R., & Sethi, F. (2016). Coercive Measures in General Adult and Community Settings. In B. Völlm & N. Nedopil (Eds.), The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: Legal, ethical and practical challenges (pp. 103–134) Springer.
  • Cusack, P., Cusack, F. P., McAndrew, S., McKeown, M., & Duxbury, J. (2018). An integrative review exploring the physical and psychological harm inherent in using restraint in mental health inpatient settings. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 27(3), 1162–1176. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12432
  • Cutcliffe, J. R., & Riahi, S. (2013a). Systemic perspective of violence and aggression in mental health care: Towards a more comprehensive understanding and conceptualization: Part 1. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 22(6), 558–567. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12029
  • Cutcliffe, J. R., & Riahi, S. (2013b). Systemic perspective of violence and aggression in mental health care: Towards a more comprehensive understanding and conceptualization: Part 2. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 22(6), 568–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12028
  • Daffern, M., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (2019). Dynamic appraisal of situational aggression. Centre for Forensic Behavioural Science.
  • De Benedictis, L., Dumais, A., Sieu, N., Mailhot, M.-P., Létourneau, G., Tran, M.-A. M., Stikarovska, I., Bilodeau, M., Brunelle, S., Côté, G., & Lesage, A. D. (2011). Staff perceptions and organizational factors as predictors of seclusion and restraint on psychiatric wards. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 62(5), 484–491. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.62.5.pss6205_0484
  • Department of Health (DoH). (2012). Winterbourne view: A summary of the Government’s response.
  • Department of Health (DoH). (2014). Positive and proactive care: Reducing the need for restrictive interventions.
  • Duxbury, J. A. (2015). The Eileen Skellern lecture 2014: Physical restraint: In defence of the indefensible? Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 22(2), 92–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12204
  • Duxbury, J., & Whittington, R. (2005). Causes and management of patient aggression and violence: Staff and patient perspectives. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 50(5), 469–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03426.x
  • Duxbury, J., Aiken, F., & Dale, C. (2011). Deaths in custody: The role of restraint. Journal of Learning Disabilities and Offending Behaviour, 2(4), 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1108/20420921111207873
  • Duxbury, J., Baker, J., Downe, S., Jones, F., Greenwood, P., Thygesen, H., McKeown, M., Price, O., Scholes, A., Thomson, G., & Whittington, R. (2019). Minimising the use of physical restraint in acute mental health services: The outcome of a restraint reduction programme (‘REsTRAIN YOURSELF’). International Journal of Nursing Studies, 95, 40–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.03.016
  • Equality and Human Rights Commission. (2019). Human rights framework for restraint: Principles for the lawful use of physical, chemical, mechanical and coercive restrictive interventions. https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/human-rights-framework-restraint.pdf
  • Elcock, S., & Lewis, J. (2016). Mechanical restraint: Legal, ethical and clinical issues. In B. Völlm & N. Nedopil (Eds.), The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: Legal, ethical and practical challenges (pp. 315–331) Springer.
  • Evans, C. B., Smokowski, P. R., & Cotter, K. L. (2014). Cumulative bullying victimization: An investigation of the dose–response relationship between victimization and the associated mental health outcomes, social supports, and school experiences of rural adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 44, 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.06.021
  • Evans, N. (2023). Abuse of patients: What you can do to help end bad practice: Advice for nurses on reporting concerns and abusive practices, whether in forensic, assessment and treatment units or other care settings, and the support available. Mental Health Practice, 26(2), 6–8. https://doi.org/10.7748/mhp.26.2.6.s2
  • Ewington, J. (2016). Best practices for reducing the use of coercive measures. In B. Völlm & N. Nedopil (Eds.), The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: Legal, ethical and practical challenges (pp. 285–314) Springer.
  • Ferreira, C., Moura-Ramos, M., Matos, M., & Galhardo, A. (2020). A new measure to assess external and internal shame: Development, factor structure and psychometric properties of the external and internal shame scale. Current Psychology, 41(4), 1892–1901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00709-0
  • Fitzalan-Howard, F., & Wakeling, H. (2021). Evaluating the impact of ‘rehabilitative adjudications’ in four English prisons. Psychology, Crime & Law, 27(10), 1010–1031. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2021.1876050
  • Flammer, E., Frank, U., & Steinert, T. (2020). Freedom restrictive coercive measures in forensic psychiatry. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00146
  • Floen, S. K., & Elklit, A. (2007). Psychiatric diagnoses, trauma, and suicidality. Annals of General Psychiatry, 6(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859X-6-12
  • Fogel, M. H. (2009). Violence risk assessment evaluation: Practices and procedures. In J. T. Andrade (Ed.), Handbook of violence risk assessment and treatment: New approaches for mental health professionals (pp. 41–83) Springer.
  • Franke, I., Büsselmann, M., Streb, J., & Dudeck, M. (2019). Perceived institutional restraint is associated with psychological distress in forensic psychiatric inpatients. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 410. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00410
  • Gilbert, P. (2009a). Introducing compassion-focused therapy. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15(3), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1192/apt.bp.107.005264
  • Gilbert, P. (2009b). The compassionate mind. Robinson.
  • Gilbert, P. (2014). The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53(1), 6–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12043
  • Gooding, P., & McSherry, B. (2018). Alternatives to compulsory detention and treatment and coercive practices in mental health settings. Journal of Law and Medicine, 26(2), 300–305.
  • Gooding, P., McSherry, B., Roper, C., & Grey, F. (2018). Alternatives to coercion in mental health settings: A literature review. Melbourne Social Equity Institute, University of Melbourne.
  • Goulet, M. H., Larue, C., & Dumais, A. (2017). Evaluation of seclusion and restraint reduction programs in mental health: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.01.019
  • Goulet, M. H., Larue, C., & Lemieux, A. J. (2018). A pilot study of “post‐seclusion and/or restraint review” intervention with patients and staff in a mental health setting. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 54(2), 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12225
  • Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (1997). Terror management theory of self-esteem and cultural worldviews: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 29, 61–139.
  • Griffith, J. J., Daffern, M., & Godber, T. (2013). Examination of the predictive validity of the dynamic appraisal of situational aggression in two mental health units. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 22(6), 485–492. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12011
  • Gudde, C. B., Olsø, T. M., Whittington, R., & Vatne, S. (2015). Service users’ experiences and views of aggressive situations in mental health care: A systematic review and thematic synthesis of qualitative studies. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 8, 449–462. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S89486
  • Gustafsson, N., & Salzmann-Erikson, M. (2016). Effect of complex working conditions on nurses who exert coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 54(9), 37–43. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20160817-06
  • Hammervold, U. E., Norvoll, R., Aas, R. W., & Sagvaag, H. (2019). Post-incident review after restraint in mental health care-a potential for knowledge development, recovery promotion and restraint prevention. A scoping review. BMC Health Services Research, 19(1), 235. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-4060-y
  • Happell, B., & Harrow, A. (2010). Nurses’ attitudes to the use of seclusion: A review of the literature. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 19(3), 162–168. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0349.2010.00669.x
  • Haque, Q., & Webster, C. D. (2013). Structured professional judgement and sequential redirections. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health: CBMH, 23(4), 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.1886
  • Hart, J. E., Cramer, E. D., Harry, B., Klingner, J. K., & Sturges, K. M. (2010). The continuum of “troubling” to “troubled” behavior: Exploratory case studies of African American students in programs for emotional disturbance. Remedial and Special Education, 31(3), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932508327468
  • Hayden, C., & Jenkins, C. (2015). Troubled or troublesome? Children taken into care and custody. In K. Davies (Ed.), Social work with troubled families (pp. 103–127) Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
  • Hernandez, A., Riahi, S., Stuckey, M. I., Mildon, B. A., & Klassen, P. E. (2017). Multidimensional approach to restraint minimization: The journey of a specialized mental health organization. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 26(5), 482–490. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12379
  • Hörberg, U., Sjögren, R., & Dahlberg, K. (2012). To be strategically struggling against resignation: The lived experience of being cared for in forensic psychiatric care. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 33(11), 743–751. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2012.704623
  • Huckshorn, K. A. (2004). Reducing seclusion & restraint use in mental health settings: Core strategies for prevention. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 42(9), 22–33. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20040901-05
  • Hui, A. (2016). Mental health workers’ experiences of using coercive measures: “You can’t tell people who don’t understand. In B. Völlm & N. Nedopil (Eds.), The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: Legal, ethical and practical challenges (pp. 241–255). Springer.
  • Hui, A. (2017). Least restrictive practices: An evaluation of patient experiences. http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/48816/1/Least%20Restrictive%20Practices%20Evaluation%20-%20Final%20Report%20AH%2020.12.17.pdf
  • Hui, A. M. (2015). The use of coercive measures in a high secure hospital: expressions of institutional and emotional work [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Nottingham.
  • Hui, A., Middleton, H., & Völlm, B. (2016). The uses of coercive measures in forensic psychiatry: A literature review. In B. Völlm & N. Nedopil (Eds.), The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: Legal, ethical and practical challenges (pp. 151–184) Springer.
  • Hutchison, J. S. (2016). Scandals in health‐care: Their impact on health policy and nursing. Nursing Inquiry, 23(1), 32–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/nin.12115
  • Irons, C., & Lad, S. (2017). Using compassion focused therapy to work with shame and self-criticism in complex trauma. Australian Clinical Psychologist, 3(1), 1743.
  • Jacob, J. D., Gagnon, M., & Holmes, D. (2009). Nursing so‐called monsters: On the importance of abjection and fear in forensic psychiatric nursing. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 5(3), 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-3938.2009.01048.x
  • Jalil, R., Huber, J. W., Sixsmith, J., & Dickens, G. L. (2017). Mental health nurses’ emotions, exposure to patient aggression, attitudes to and use of coercive measures: Cross sectional questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 75, 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.07.018
  • Johnstone, L., & Boyle, M. (2018). The power threat meaning framework: Towards the identification of patterns in emotional distress, unusual experiences and troubled or troubling behaviour, as an alternative to functional psychiatric diagnosis. British Psychological Society.
  • Kennedy, H. G., Mullaney, R., McKenna, P., Thompson, J., Timmons, D., Gill, P., O'Sullivan, O. P., Braham, P., Duffy, D., Kearns, A., Linehan, S., Mohan, D., Monks, S., McLoughlin, L., O'Connell, P., O'Neill, C., Wright, B., O'Reilly, K., & Davoren, M. (2020). A tool to evaluate proportionality and necessity in the use of restrictive practices in forensic mental health settings: The DRILL tool (Dundrum restriction, intrusion and liberty ladders). BMC Psychiatry, 20(1), 515. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02912-6
  • Kerig, P. K. (2020). Emotion dysregulation and childhood trauma. In T. P. Beauchaine & S. E. Crowell (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of emotion dysregulation (pp. 265–283). Oxford University Press.
  • Laiho, T., Hottinen, A., Lindberg, N., & Sailas, E. (2016). Staff attitudes towards seclusion and restraint in forensic settings. In B. Völlm & N. Nedopil (Eds.), The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: Legal, ethical and practical challenges (pp. 231–240) Springer.
  • Law, K. C., Khazem, L. R., & Anestis, M. D. (2015). The role of emotion dysregulation in suicide as considered through the ideation to action framework. Current Opinion in Psychology, 3, 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.014
  • Lawrence, D., Bagshaw, R., Stubbings, D., & Watt, A. (2022). Restrictive practices in adult secure mental health services: A scoping review. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 21(1), 68–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2021.1887978
  • Lawrence, D., Davies, J. L., Mills, S., & Watt, A. (2024). Differences between restrictive practices applied to men and women in UK Secure Mental Health Services. [Manuscript submitted for publication].
  • LeBel, J. L., Duxbury, J. A., Putkonen, A., Sprague, T., Rae, C., & Sharp, J. (2014). Multinational experiences in reducing and preventing the use of restraint and seclusion. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 52(11), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20140915-01
  • Long, C. G., Afford, M., Harris, R., & Dolley, O. (2016). Training in de-escalation: an effective alternative to restrictive interventions in a secure service for women. Journal of Psychiatric Intensive Care, 12(1), 11–18.
  • Lucre, K., & Taylor, J. (2020). Compati | To suffer with: Compassion focused staff support as an antidote to the cost of caring in forensic services. In H. Swaby, B. Winder, R. Lievesley, K. Hocken, N. Blagden, & P. Banyard (Eds.), Sexual crime and trauma (pp. 143–174). Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Maguire, T., Daffern, M., Bowe, S. J., & McKenna, B. (2017). Predicting aggressive behaviour in acute forensic mental health units: A re‐examination of the dynamic appraisal of situational aggression’s predictive validity. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 26(5), 472–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12377
  • Maguire, T., Daffern, M., Bowe, S. J., & McKenna, B. (2019). Evaluating the impact of an electronic application of the dynamic appraisal of situational aggression with an embedded aggression prevention protocol on aggression and restrictive interventions on a forensic mental health unit. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 28(5), 1186–1197. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12630
  • Marshall, L. A., Adams, E. A., & Stuckey, M. I. (2019). Relationships, experience, and support: Staff perception of safety in a forensic mental health facility. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 30(5), 824–835. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2019.1642368
  • Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Gilbert, P. (2013). The effect of shame and shame memories on paranoid ideation and social anxiety. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 20(4), 334–349. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1766
  • McKeown, M., Thomson, G., Scholes, A., Jones, F., Baker, J., Downe, S., Price, O., Greenwood, P., Whittington, R., & Duxbury, J. (2019). “Catching your tail and firefighting”: The impact of staffing levels on restraint minimization efforts. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 26(5-6), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12532
  • Mental Health Act 1983/2007. The Stationary Office.
  • Merrick, M. T., Ports, K. A., Ford, D. C., Afifi, T. O., Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2017). Unpacking the impact of adverse childhood experiences on adult mental health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.03.016
  • Molnar, B. E., Sprang, G., Killian, K. D., Gottfried, R., Emery, V., & Bride, B. E. (2017). Advancing science and practice for vicarious traumatization/secondary traumatic stress: A research agenda. Traumatology, 23(2), 129.
  • Morgan, C., Gayer-Anderson, C., Beards, S., Hubbard, K., Mondelli, V., Di Forti, M., Murray, R. M., Pariante, C., Dazzan, P., Craig, T. J., Reininghaus, U., & Fisher, H. L. (2020). Threat, hostility and violence in childhood and later psychotic disorder: Population-based case–control study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 217(4), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2020.133
  • Morrissey, J., Jackson, E., Ellis, A., Amaro, H., Brown, V., & Najavits, L. (2005). Twelve-month outcomes of trauma-informed interventions for women with co-occurring disorders. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 56(10), 1213–1222. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.10.1213
  • Muir‐Cochrane, E., O'Kane, D., & Oster, C. (2018). Fear and blame in mental health nurses’ accounts of restrictive practices: Implications for the elimination of seclusion and restraint. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 27(5), 1511–1521. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12451
  • Muir–Cochrane, E., Van der Merwe, M., Nijman, H., Haglund, K., Simpson, A., & Bowers, L. (2012). Investigation into the acceptability of door locking to staff, patients, and visitors on acute psychiatric wards. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 21(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0349.2011.00758.x
  • Murphy, T., & Bennington-Davis, M. (2005). Restraint and seclusion: The model for eliminating their use in healthcare. HCPro Inc.
  • Muskett, C. (2014). Trauma‐informed care in inpatient mental health settings: A review of the literature. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 23(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12012
  • Needham, I. A. C. H., Abderhalden, C., Halfens, R. J. G., Dassen, T., Haug, H. J., & Fischer, J. E. (2005a). The effect of a training course in aggression management on mental health nurses’ perceptions of aggression: A cluster randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 42(6), 649–655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2004.10.003
  • Needham, I., Abderhalden, C., Halfens, R. J., Fischer, J. E., & Dassen, T. (2005b). Non‐somatic effects of patient aggression on nurses: A systematic review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 49(3), 283–296. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2004.03286.x
  • Newman, C., Roche, M., & Elliott, D. (2021). Exposure to workplace trauma for forensic mental health nurses: A scoping review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 117, 103897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.103897
  • Newman, J., Paun, O., & Fogg, L. (2018). Effects of a staff training intervention on seclusion rates on an adult inpatient psychiatric unit. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 56(6), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.3928/02793695-20180212-02
  • NHS England. (2021). NHS patient safety strategy: 2021 update. NHS.
  • Nicholls, T. L., Brink, J., Greaves, C., Lussier, P., & Verdun-Jones, S. (2009). Forensic psychiatric inpatients and aggression: An exploration of incidence, prevalence, severity, and interventions by gender. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32(1), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.11.007
  • O’Donovan, D., Boland, C., & Carballedo, A. (2022). Current trends in restrictive interventions in psychiatry: A European perspective. BJPsych Advances, 29(4), 274–282. https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2022.41
  • Oster, C., Gerace, A., Thomson, D., & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2016). Seclusion and restraint use in adult inpatient mental health care: An Australian perspective. Collegian, 23(2), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colegn.2015.03.006
  • Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Matos, M. (2011). Can shame memories become a key to identity? The centrality of shame memories predicts psychopathology. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(2), 281–290. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1689
  • Platt, M., & Freyd, J. (2012). Trauma and negative underlying assumptions in feelings of shame: An exploratory study. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(4), 370–378. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024253
  • Porges, S. W., & Dana, D. A. (2018). Clinical applications of the Polyvagal theory: The emergence of Polyvagal-Informed therapies. WW Norton & Company.
  • Porter, C., Palmier‐Claus, J., Branitsky, A., Mansell, W., Warwick, H., & Varese, F. (2020). Childhood adversity and borderline personality disorder: A meta‐analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 141(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13118
  • Price, O., Burbery, P., Leonard, S. J., & Doyle, M. (2016). Evaluation of Safewards in forensic mental health. Mental Health Practice, 19(8), 14–21. https://doi.org/10.7748/mhp.19.8.14.s17
  • Prytherch, H., Cooke, A., & Marsh, I. (2020). Coercion or collaboration: Service-user experiences of risk management in hospital and a trauma-informed crisis house. Psychosis, 13(2), 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/17522439.2020.1830155
  • Pulsford, D., Crumpton, A., Baker, A., Wilkins, T., Wright, K., & Duxbury, J. (2013). Aggression in a high secure hospital: Staff and patient attitudes. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 20(4), 296–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2850.2012.01908.x
  • Putkonen, A., Kuivalainen, S., Louheranta, O., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Ryynänen, O. P., Kautiainen, H., & Tiihonen, J. (2013). Cluster-randomized controlled trial of reducing seclusion and restraint in secured care of men with schizophrenia. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 64(9), 850–855. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201200393
  • Ray, S. L., Wong, C., White, D., & Heaslip, K. (2013). Compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, work life conditions, and burnout among frontline mental health care professionals. Traumatology, 19(4), 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765612471144
  • Reynolds, E. K., Grados, M. A., Praglowski, N., Hankinson, J. C., Deboard-Lucas, R., Goldstein, L., Perry-Parrish, C. K., Specht, M. W., & Ostrander, R. (2016). Use of modified positive behavioral interventions and supports in a psychiatric inpatient unit for high-risk youths. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 67(5), 570–573. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201500039
  • Reynolds, M., Mezey, G., Chapman, M., Wheeler, M., Drummond, C., & Baldacchino, A. (2005). Co-morbid post-traumatic stress disorder in a substance misusing clinical population. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 77(3), 251–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.08.017
  • Riahi, S., Thomson, G., & Duxbury, J. (2016). An integrative review exploring decision‐making factors influencing mental health nurses in the use of restraint. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 23(2), 116–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12285
  • Sailas, E., & Fenton, M. (2012). Seclusion and restraint for people with serious mental illnesses (review). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001163
  • Sashidharan, S. P., Mezzina, R., & Puras, D. (2019). Reducing coercion in mental healthcare. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 28(6), 605–612. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796019000350
  • Scholes, A., Price, O., & Berry, K. (2022). Women’s experiences of restrictive interventions within inpatient mental health services: A qualitative investigation. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 31(2), 379–389. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12966
  • See, Y. H. M., & Petty, R. E. (2006). Effects of mortality salience on evaluation of in group and outgroup sources: The impact of pro-versus counter attitudinal positions. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 32(3), 405–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205282737
  • Sheppes, G., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11(1), 379–405. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112739
  • Soininen, P., Kontio, R., Joffe, G., & Putkonen, H. (2016). Patient experience of coercive measures. The use of coercive measures in forensic psychiatric care: Legal, ethical and practical challenges, 255–270.
  • Steinert, T., Birk, M., Flammer, E., & Bergk, J. (2013). Subjective distress after seclusion or mechanical restraint: One-year follow-up of a randomized controlled study. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 64(10), 1012–1017. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201200315
  • Sweeney, A., Clement, S., Filson, B., & Kennedy, A. (2016). Trauma-informed mental healthcare in the UK: What is it and how can we further its development? Mental Health Review Journal, 21(3), 174–192. https://doi.org/10.1108/MHRJ-01-2015-0006
  • Sweeney, A., Filson, B., Kennedy, A., Collinson, L., & Gillard, S. (2018). A paradigm shift: Relationships in trauma-informed mental health services. BJPsych Advances, 24(5), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2018.29
  • Szmukler, G. (2015). Compulsion and “coercion” in mental health care. World Psychiatry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 14(3), 259–261. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20264
  • Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Martinez, A. G. (2014). Two faces of shame: The roles of shame and guilt in predicting recidivism. Psychological Science, 25(3), 799–805. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613508790
  • Tingleff, E. B., Hounsgaard, L., Bradley, S. K., & Gildberg, F. A. (2019). Forensic psychiatric patients’ perceptions of situations associated with mechanical restraint: A qualitative interview study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 28(2), 468–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12549
  • To, W. T., Vanheule, S., De Smet, S., & Vandevelde, S. (2015). The treatment perspectives of mentally ill offenders in medium-and high-secure forensic settings in Flanders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 59(14), 1605–1622. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X14566355
  • Tomlin, J., Bartlett, P., & Völlm, B. (2018). Experiences of restrictiveness in forensic psychiatric care: Systematic review and concept analysis. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 57, 31–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2017.12.006
  • Tomlin, J., Egan, V., Bartlett, P., & Völlm, B. (2020). What do patients find restrictive about forensic mental health services? A qualitative study. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 19(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2019.1623955
  • Towl, G. J. (2015). Ethical issues in forensic psychological policy and practice. In D. A. Crighton & G. J. Towl (Eds.), Forensic psychology (2nd ed., pp.405–415). John Wiley & Sons.
  • Tully, J., McSweeney, L., Harfield, K. L., Castle, C., & Das, M. (2016). Innovation and pragmatism required to reduce seclusion practices. CNS spectrums, 21(6), 424–429.
  • Ulrich, R. S., Bogren, L., Gardiner, S. K., & Lundin, S. (2018). Psychiatric ward design can reduce aggressive behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 57, 53–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.05.002
  • Urheim, R., Rypdal, K., Palmstierna, T., & Mykletun, A. (2011). Patient autonomy versus risk management: A case study of change in a high security forensic psychiatric ward. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 10(1), 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2010.550983
  • van der Schaaf, P. S., Dusseldorp, E., Keuning, F. M., Janssen, W. A., & Noorthoorn, E. O. (2013). Impact of the physical environment of psychiatric wards on the use of seclusion. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 202(2), 142–149. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.112.118422
  • Veltkamp, E., Nijman, H., Stolker, J. J., Frigge, K., Dries, P., & Bowers, L. (2008). Patients’ preferences for seclusion or forced medication in acute psychiatric emergency in the Netherlands. Psychiatric Services (Washington, D.C.), 59(2), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.2.209
  • Vincent, E., & Baldoza, S. M. (2023). The horrors of Edenfield and how to make detentions obsolete. Socialist Lawyer, 92, 20–23.
  • Welsh Government. (2021). Reducing Restrictive Practices Framework: A framework to promote measures and practice that will lead to the reduction of restrictive practices in childcare, education, health and social care settings for people of all ages. https://gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2021-07/reducing-restrictive-practices-framework.pdf
  • Whitmore, C. (2017). Evaluation of Safewards in forensic mental health: A response. Mental Health Practice, 20(8), 26–29. https://doi.org/10.7748/mhp.2017.e1203
  • Whittle, M. (1997). Malignant alienation. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 8(1), 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585189708411990
  • World Health Organisation. (2018). Mental health, human rights and standards of care. Assessment of the quality of institutional care for adults with psychosocial and intellectual disabilities in the WHO European Region. https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_ file/0017/373202/mental-health-programme-eng.pdf
  • Wright, K. M., Duxbury, J. A., Baker, A., & Crumpton, A. (2014). A qualitative study into the attitudes of patients and staff towards violence and aggression in a high security hospital. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 21(2), 184–188. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpm.12108
  • Yakov, S., Birur, B., Bearden, M. F., Aguilar, B., Ghelani, K. J., & Fargason, R. E. (2018). Sensory reduction on the general milieu of a high-acuity inpatient psychiatric unit to prevent use of physical restraints: A successful open quality improvement trial. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 24(2), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390317736136

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.