THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF ANXIETY DISORDERS: IMPLICATIONS FOR PSYCHIATRIC NURSING PRACTICE

References

• Albus, M., & Scheibe, G. (1993). Outcome of panic disorder with or without concomi-tant depression: A 2-year prospective study follow-up study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1878–1880.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (1998). Practice guideline for the treatment of pa- tients with panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry (suppl.) 155, 1-39. Amundson, G. J. G., Stein, M. B., Larsen, D. K., & Walker, J. R. (1994). Neurocognitive function in panic disorder and social phobia clients, Anxiety, 1, 201–207.
   Google Scholar
• Antai-Otong, D. (1995). The client with an anxiety disorder. In D. Antai-Otong (Ed.), Psychiatric nursing: Biological and behavioral concepts (pp. 191–208). Philadel-phia: W. B. Saunders.
   Google Scholar
• Ballenger, J. C., Wheadon, D. E., Steiner, M., Bushnell, W., & Gergel, I. P. (1998). Double-blind, fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study of paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. American Journal Psychiatry, 155, 36–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Emery, C., & Greenberg, R. L. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Blakely, R., de Felice, L. J., & Hartzell, H. C. (1994). Molecular physiology of norepine-phrine and serotonin transporters. Journal of Experimental Biology, 196, 263–281.
   Google Scholar
• Blanes, T., & McGuire, P. (1997). Heterogeneity within obsessive compulsive disorder: Evidence for primary and neurodevelopmental subtypes. In M. S. Keshavan, D. L. Murphy, & R. M. Cohen (Eds.), Neurodevelopmental models of psychopathology (pp. 206–213). London: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Borkovec, T. D., & Costello, E. (1993). Efficacy of applied relaxation and cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Con-sulting Clinical Psychology, 61, 611–619.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bremner, J. D., Krystal, J. H., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (1995). Functional neuroanatomical correlates of the effects of stress on memory. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 527–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burguera, B., Muruais, C., Penalva, A., Dieguez, C., & Casanueva, F. (1990). Dual and selective actions of glucocorticoid upon basal and stimulated growth hormone release in man. Neuroendocrinology, 51, 51–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauoloff, F. (1993). Physiopharmacological interactions between stress hormones and central serotonergic systems. Brain Research Review, 18, 1–32.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Coplan, J. D., Papp, L. A., Martinez, J., Pine, D., Rosenblum, L. A., Cooper, T., Liebowitz, M. R., & Gorman, J. M. (1995). Persistence of blunted human growth hormone response to clonidine in panic disorder following fluoxetine treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 619–622.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Deakin, J. F. W., & Graeff, F. G. (1991). 5-HT and mechanisms of defense. Journal of Psychophannacology, 5,305–315.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Drugan, R. C. (1996). Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors: Molecular pharmacology to possible physiological significance in stress-induced hypertension. Clinical Neu-ropharmacology, 19, 475–496.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Drugan, R. C., & Holmes, P. V. (1991). Central and peripheral benzodiazepine recep-tors: Involvement in an organism's response to physical and psychological stress. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Review, 15, 277–298.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Emmanuel, N. P., Lydriard, R. B., & Ballenger, J. C. (1991). Treatment of social phobia with buproprion [letter]. Journal Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11, 276–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrarese, C., Appollonio, I., Frigo, M., Perego, M., Pioli, R., Trabucchi, M., & Frattola, L. (1990). Decreased density of benzodiazepine receptors in lymphocytes of anxious clients: Reversal after chronic diazepam treatment Acta Psychiatrica Scandinava, 82, 169–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figenbaum, W. (1988). Long-term efficacy of ungraded versus graded mass exposure in agoraphobics. In I. Hand & H. U. (Eds.), Panic and phobias 2: Treatments and variables affecting the course and outcome (pp. 83–88). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Garvey, M., Noyes, R., & Cook, B. (1990). Comparison of panic disordered clients with high versus low MHPG. Journal of Affective Disorders, 20, 7–12.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gavish, M., Bar-Ami, S., & Weizman, R. (1992). The endocrine system and mitochon-drial benzodiazepine receptors. Molecular Cell Endocrinology, 88, 1–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gavish, M., Loar, N., Bidder, M., Fisher, D., Fonia, 0., Muller, U., Reiss, A., Wolmer, L., Karp, L., & Weizman, R. (1996). Altered platelet peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychophannacology, 14, 181–186.
   Google Scholar
• Grahame-Smith, D. G. (1996). The neuropharmacology of 5-HT in anxiety. In M. Briley & S. E. File (Eds.), New concepts in anxiety (pp. 46–55), Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gurguis, G. N. M., & Uhde, T. W. (1990). Plasma 3-methoxy-4hydroxyphenylethylen e glycol (MHPG) and growth hormone responses to yohimbine in panic disorder clients and normal controls. Psychoneuro endocrinology, 15, 217–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guyton, A. C., & Hall, J. E. (1996). Textbook of medical physiology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
   Google Scholar
• Haefely, W. (1990). GABA-benzodiazepine interaction fifteen years later. Neurochemi-cal Research, 15, 169–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horwath, E., Johnson, J., & Horning, C. D. (1993). Epidemiology of panic disorder in African-Americans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 465–469.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Humphrey, P. P. A., Hartig, P., & Hoyer, D. (1993). A proposed new nomenclature for 5-HT receptors. Trends in Pharmacology Science, 14, 233–236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, M. R., & Lydiard, R. B. (1995). The neurobiology of anxiety disorders. Psy-chiatric Clinics of North America, 18, 681–725.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Kessler, R. C., Heath, A. C., & Eaves, L. J. (1992). Gen-eralized anxiety disorder in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 267–272.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Kessler, R. C., Heath, A. C., & Eaves, L. J. (1993). Panic disorder in women: A population based twin study. Psychological Medicine, 23, 387–406.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhoa, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H. U., Kendler, K. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12 month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehne, R. A., Moore, L. A., Crosby, L. J., & Hamilton, D. B. (1998). Pharmacology for nursing care (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
   Google Scholar
• Lesch, K-P. (1997). Molecular biology, pharmacology, and genetics of the serotonin transporter: Psychobiological and clinical implications. In H. G. Baumgarten & M. Gothert (Eds.), Sertonergic neurons and 5-HT receptors in the CNS (pp. 671–705). New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Lesch, K-P., & Mossner, R. (1998). Genetically driven variation in serotonin uptake: Is there a link to affective spectrum, neurodevelopmental, and neurodegenerative disorders? Society of Biology Psychiatry, 44, 179–192.
   Google Scholar
• Liebowitz, M. R., Schneier, E., Campeas, R., Hollander, E., Hatterer, J., Fyer, A., Gorman, J., Papp, L., Davies, S., Gully, R., & Klein, D. F. (1992). Phenelzine vs atenolol in social phobia. A placebo-controlled comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 290–300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longo, L. P. (1998). Anxiety: Neurobiologic underpinnings. Psychiatric Annals, 28, 130–138.
   Google Scholar
• Lucid, I. (1996). Serotonin receptor specificity in anxiety disorders. Journal Clinical Psychiatry, 57(Suppl.), 5–10.
   Google Scholar
• Lucid, I. (1998). The spectrum of behaviors influenced by serotonin. Society of Biolog-ical Psychiatry, 44, 151–162.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mega, M. S., & Cummings, J. L. (1994). Frontal- subcortical circuits and neuropsychi-atric disorders. Journal Neuropsychiatry Clinics Neuroscience, 6, 358–370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pauls, D. L., Alsobrook, J. P. II, Phil, M., Goodman, W., Rasmussen, S., & Leckman, J. F. (1995). A family study of obsessive-compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 76–84.
   Google Scholar
• Perani, D., Colombo, C., Bressi, S., Bonfanti, A., Grassi, F., Scarone, S., Bellodi, L., Smeraldi, E., & Fazio, F. (1995). [F-18] FDG PET study in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A clinical metabolic correlation study after treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 244–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Post, R. M., & Weiss, S. R. B. (1998). Sensitization and kindling phenomenal in mood, anxiety, and obsessive compulsive disorders: The role of serotonergic mechanisms in illness progression. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 44, 193–206.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Purcell, R., Maruff, R., Kyrios, M., & Pantelis, C. (1998). Neuropsychological deficits in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55,415–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., & Rae, D. S. (1990). The epidemiology of anxiety disor-der: The Epidemiological Catchment Area (ECA) experience. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 24 (Suppl. 2), 3–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocca, P., Beoni, A. M., Eva, C., Ferrero, P., Zanalda, E., & Ravizza, L. (1998). Pe-ripheral benzodiazepine receptor messenger RNA is decreased in lymphocytes of generalized anxiety disorder clients. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 43, 767–773.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosenberg, D. R., & Keshavan, M. S. (1998). Toward a neurodevelopmental model of obsessive compulsive disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 43, 623–640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sallee, F. R., Koran, L. M., Pallanti, S., Carson, S. W., & Sethuraman, G. (1998). In-travenous clomipramine challenge in obsessive-compulsive compulsive disorder: Predicting response to oral therapy at eight weeks. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 44, 220–227.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schmidtke, K., Schorb, A., VVinkelmann, G., & Hohagen, F. (1998). Cognitive frontal lobe dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 43, 666–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, G. M., Coplan, J. D., & Gorman, J. M. (1998). Psychoneuroendocrinology of anxiety disorders. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 21, 397–412.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tancer, M. E., Stein, M. B., & Uhde, T. W. (1993). Growth hormone response to in-travenous clonidine in social phobia: Comparison to clients with panic disorder and healthy volunteers. Biological Psychiatry, 34, 591–595.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yehuda, R., Kahana, B., Binder-Brynes, K., Southwick, S. M., Mason, J. W., & Giller, E. L. (1995). Low urinary cortisol in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal Psychiatry, 152, 982–986.
   Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, D. J. C., Thompson, J. M., Lambert, G. W., Jennings, G. L., Schwartz, R. G., Jefferys. D., Turner, A. G., & Esler, M. D. (1998). Sympathetic activity in clients with panic disorder at rest, under laboratory mental stress and during panic attacks. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55,511–520.
   Google Scholar
• Woods, S. W., Charney, D. S., Silver, J. M., Krystal, J. H., & Heninger, G. R. (1991). Be-havioral, biochemical, and cardiovascular responses to the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumenzil in panic disorder. Psychiatry Research, 36, 115–127.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar