Confounding factors impacting the Glasgow coma score: a literature review

References

• Teasdale G, Jennett B (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet 304(7872) 81–84. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(74)91639-0
   Google Scholar
• Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment and prognosis of coma after head injury. Acta Neurochirgica. 1976;34(1–4):45–55. doi: 10.1007/BF01405862
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbabi S, Jurkovich GJ, Wahl WL, et al. A comparison of prehospital and hospital data in trauma patients. J Trauma. 2004;56(5):1029–1032. doi: 10.1097/01.TA.0000123036.20919.4B
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crepeau F, Scherzer P. Predictors and indicators of work status after traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychological Rehabilitat. 1993;3(1):5–35. doi: 10.1080/09602019308401421
   Google Scholar
• Sherer M, Struchen MA, Yablon SA, et al. Comparison of indices of traumatic brain injury severity: Glasgow Coma Scale, length of coma and post-traumatic amnesia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008;79:678–685. 6 10.1136/jnnp.2006.111187
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St Julien J, Bandeen-Roche K, Tamargo RJ Validation of an aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage grading scale in 1532 consecutive patients. Neurosurgery 2008;63(2):204–211. doi: 10.1227/01.NEU.0000316857.80632.9A
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zuercher M, Ummenhofer W, Baltussen A, et al. The use of Glasgow coma scale in injury assessment: a critical review. Brain Inj. 2009;23(5):371–384. doi: 10.1080/02699050902926267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gill M, Reiley DG, Green SM. Interrater reliability of Glasgow Coma Scale scores in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2004;43(2):215–223. doi: 10.1016/S0196-0644(03)00814-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer M, Rüegg S, Czaplinski A, et al. Inter-rater reliability of the full outline of unresponsiveness score and the Glasgow coma scale in critically ill patients: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2010;14(2):R64. doi: 10.1186/cc8963
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holdgate A, Ching N, Angonese L. Variability in agreement between physicians and nurses when measuring the Glasgow coma scale in the emergency department limits its clinical usefulness. Emerg Med Australas. 2006;18(4):379–384. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-6723.2006.00867.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rowley G, Fielding K. Reliability and accuracy of the Glasgow coma scale with experienced and inexperienced users. Lancet. 1991;337(8740):535–538. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(91)91309-I
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNarry AF, Goldhill DR. Simple bedside assessment of level of consciousness: comparison of two simple assessment scales with the Glasgow coma scale. Anaesthesia. 2004;59(1):34–37. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2004.03526.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riechers RG 2nd, Ramage A, Brown W, et al. Physician knowledge of the Glasgow coma scale. J Neurotrauma. 2005;22(11):1327–1334. doi: 10.1089/neu.2005.22.1327
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bassi S, Buxton N, Punt JA, et al. Glasgow coma scale: a help or a hindrance? Br J Neurosurg. 1999;13:526–539.
   Google Scholar
• Healey C, Osler TM, Rogers FB, et al. Improving the Glasgow coma scale score: motor score alone is a better predictor. J Trauma. 2003;54(44):671–678. doi: 10.1097/01.TA.0000058130.30490.5D
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore L, Lavoie A, Camden S, et al. Statistical validation of the Glasgow coma score. J Trauma. 2006;60(6):1238–1243. doi: 10.1097/01.ta.0000195593.60245.80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Guly H. Substance abuse and the trauma patient. Trauma. 2004;6(3):205–210. doi: 10.1191/1460408604ta315oa
   Google Scholar
• DiGiorgio AM, Wittenberg BA, Crutcher CL, et al. 2nd the impact of drug and alcohol intoxication on Glasgow Coma Scale Assessment in patients with traumatic brain injury. World Neurosurg. 2020 Mar;135:e664–e670. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2019.12.095. Epub 2019 Dec 24. PMID: 31881342
   Google Scholar
• Uccella L, Bongetta D, Fumagalli L, et al. Acute alcohol intoxication as a confounding factor for mild traumatic brain injury. Neurol Sci. 2020 Aug;41(8):2127–2134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sperry JL, Larry MG, Joseph PM, et al. Waiting for the patient to “sober up”: effect of alcohol intoxication on Glasgow coma scale score of brain injured patients. J Trauma. 2006 Dec;61(6):1305–1311.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zimmermann LL, Diaz-Arrastia R, Vespa PM. Seizures and the role of anticonvulsants after traumatic brain injury. Clin N Am. 2016 Oct;27(4):499–508. doi: 10.1016/j.nec.2016.06.001
   Google Scholar
• McCrory PR, Bladin PF, Berkovic SF (1997) Retrospective study of concussive convulsions in elite Australian rules and rugby league footballers: phenomenology, aetiology, and outcome. BMJ 314(7075):171–171. doi: 10.1136/bmj.314.7075.171
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hal Blumenfeld H, Taylor J. Why do seizures cause loss of consciousness? Neuroscientist. 2003 Oct;9(5):301–10. doi: 10.1177/1073858403255624
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lüders H, Amina S, Bailey C, et al. Proposal: different types of alteration and loss of consciousness in epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2014 Aug;55(8):1140–4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vespa PM, Nuwer MR, Nenov V, et al. Increased incidence and impact of nonconvulsive and convulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury as detected by continuous electroencephalographic monitoring. J Neurosurg 1999;91(5):750–756 doi: 10.3171/jns.1999.91.5.0750
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claassen J, Vespa P Electrophysiologic monitoring in acute brain injury. Neurocrit Care 2014; 21(Suppl 2):S129–47. 10.1007/s12028-014-0022-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sødal HF, Storvig G, Tverdal C, et al. Early post-traumatic seizures in hospitalized patients with traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurol Scand. 2022 Nov;146(5):485–491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young GB. Coma. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2009 Mar;1157(1):32–47. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04471.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xu SY, Li ZX, Wu XW, et al. Frequency and pathophysiology of post-seizure todd’s paralysis. Med Sci Monit. 2020 Mar 5;26:e920751. doi: 10.12659/MSM.920751
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordvig AS, Fong KT, Joshua ZW, et al. Potential neurologic manifestations of COVID-19. Neurol Clin Pract. 2021 Apr;11(2):e135–e146.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boehme AK, Doyle K, Thakur KT, et al. Disorders of consciousness in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: the role of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Neurocrit Care. 2022 Feb;36(1):89–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldrop G, Safavynia SA, Barra ME, et al. Prolonged Unconsciousness is Common in COVID-19 and Associated with Hypoxemia. Neurol. 2022 Jun;91(6):740–755.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pushparajan L, Maurya M, Ravi R. Cobra envenomation in an elderly female mimicking brain death- a case report. J Family Med Prim Care. 2022 Jan;11(1):340–343. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_706_21
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shaw PK, Brouwer RE, Spaander PJ, et al. Nature’s high-voltage injuries: sometimes a deadly consequence. J Med. 1996 Oct;49(4):153–9.
   Google Scholar
• Wijdicks EF. Determining brain death (minneap minn). Continuum. 2015 Oct;21(5):1411–1424. doi: 10.1212/CON.0000000000000221
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Middleton PM. Practical use of the Glasgow coma scale; a comprehensive narrative review of GCS methodology. Emerg Nurs J. 2012 Aug;15(3):170–183. doi: 10.1016/j.aenj.2012.06.002
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hitawala AA, Garg P, Jain A, et al. Severe hypokalemia mimicking brain death. J Crit Care Med. 2018 Sep;22(9):674–677. doi: 10.4103/ijccm.IJCCM_163_18
   Google Scholar
• Polderman KH, Bloemers FW, Peerdeman SM, et al. Hypomagnesemia and hypophosphatemia at admission in patients with severe head injury. Crit Care Med. 2000 Jun;28(6):2022–2025. doi: 10.1097/00003246-200006000-00057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ragland G. Electrolyte abnormalities in the alcoholic patient. Med Clin North Am. 1990 Nov;8(4):761–73. doi: 10.1016/S0733-8627(20)30236-4
   Google Scholar
• Weil ZM, Corrigan JD, Karelina K Alcohol use disorder and traumatic brain injury. Research. 2018;39(2):171–180.
   Google Scholar
• Hoban C. Assessing for head injury in alcohol-intoxicated patients. Nurse. 2017 Sep 14;25(5):30–33.
   Google Scholar
• Vamvakas S, Teschner M, Bahner U, et al. Alcohol abuse: potential role in electrolyte disturbances and kidney diseases. Clin Nephrol. 1998 Apr;49(4):205–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diringer M Neurologic manifestations of major electrolyte abnormalities. Clin Neurol. 2017;141:705–713.
   Google Scholar
• Marion DW, Carlier PM. Problems with initial Glasgow coma scale assessment caused by prehospital treatment of patients with head injuries: results of a national survey. J Trauma. 1994 Jan;36(1):89–95. doi: 10.1097/00005373-199401000-00014
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rucker JC Normal and abnormal lid function. Clin Neurol. 2011;102:403–424.
   Google Scholar
• Lin YH, Liou LM, Lai CL, et al. Right putamen hemorrhage manifesting as apraxia of eyelid opening. Dis Treat. 2013;9:1495–1497. doi: 10.2147/NDT.S50974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirose M, Mochizuki H, Honma M, et al. Apraxia of lid opening due to a small lesion in basal ganglia: two case reports. Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010 Dec;81(12):1406–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman DI, Jankovic J, JA M 3rd Neuro-ophthalmic findings in progressive supranuclear palsy. Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1992 Jun;12(2):104–109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Suzuki Y, Kiyosawa M, Mochizuki M, et al. The pre-supplementary and primary motor areas generate rhythm for voluntary eye opening and closing movements. J Exp Med. 2010 Oct;222(2):97–104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colombo A, De Renzi E, Gibertoni M. Eyelid movement disorders following unilateral hemispheric stroke. J Neurol Sci. 1982 Mar;3(1):25–30. doi: 10.1007/BF02043344
   Google Scholar
• Guo CJ, Wang YC, Zhao Y, et al. Consciousness and speech evaluation of 96 patients with craniocerebral injury. J Traumatol. 2009 Oct;12(5):302–304.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chabok SY, Kapourchali SR, Leili EK, et al. Effective factors on linguistic disorder during acute phase following traumatic brain injury in adults. Neuropsychologia. 2012 Jun;50(7):1444–50. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.02.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldo BA, Kelley AE (2007). Discrete neurochemical coding of distinguishable motivational processes: insights from nucleus accumbens control of feeding. Psychoparmachology, 191(3): 439–459. doi: 10.1007/s00213-007-0741-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tashlykov V, Katz Y, Gazit V, et al. (2007). Apoptotic changes in the cortex and hippocampus following minimal brain trauma in mice. Brain Res, 1130, 197–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menon EB, Ravichandran S, Tan ES Speech disorders in closed head injury patients. Med J. 1993 Feb; 34(1):45–48.
   Google Scholar
• Caplan LR, Zervas NT. Speech arrest in a dextral with a right mesial frontal astrocytoma. Neurol. 1978 Apr;35(4):252–253. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1978.00500280070018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilmore RL, Heilman KM. Speech arrest in partial seizures: evidence of an associated language disorder. Neurology. 1981 Aug;31(8):1016–1019. doi: 10.1212/WNL.31.8.1016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koerner M, Laxer KD. Ictal speech, postictal language dysfunction, and seizure lateralization. Neurology. 1988;38(4):634–636. doi: 10.1212/WNL.38.4.634
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabr M, Luders H, Dinner D, et al. Speech manifestations in lateralization of temporal lobe seizures. Ann Neurol. 1989;25(1):82–87. doi: 10.1002/ana.410250113
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaikh N, Chanda A, Hassan J, et al. Tension pneumoventricle: reversible cause for aphasia. Med J. 2021 Apr 23;2021(1):15. doi: 10.5339/qmj.2021.15
   Google Scholar
• Rizwan A, Mor YS, Frank AP. A case of steroid-associated expressive aphasia. Cureus. 2021 Oct 18;13(10):e18863. doi: 10.7759/cureus.18863
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holdgate A, Ching N, Angonese L Variability in agreement between physicians and nurses when measuring the Glasgow coma scale in the emergency department limits its clinical usefulness. Emerg Med Aust 2006;18(4):379–384. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-6723.2006.00867.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iankova A The Glasgow coma scale clinical application in emergency departments. Emerg Nurse 2006;14(8):30–35. doi: 10.7748/en2006.12.14.8.30.c4221
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hunt I, Wittenberg B, Kannamer B, et al. A retrospective review of the timing of Glasgow coma scale documentation in a trauma database: implications for patient care, research, and performance metrics. World Neurosurg. 2022 July;163:e559–e564. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2022.04.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar