Political dejection in a divided society: a challenge for Latvia’s democracy?

References

• Abedi, A. 2004. Anti-Political Establishment Parties: A Comparative Analysis. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Agarin, T. 2011. “Civil Society versus Nationalizing State? Advocacy of Minority Rights in the Post-Socialist Baltic States.” Nationalities Papers 39 (2): 181–203. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2010.549471.
   Google Scholar
• Agarin, T. 2013. “Resident Aliens? Explaining Minority Disaffection with Democratic Politics in the Baltic States.” Ethnopolitics 12 (4): 331–351. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17449057.2012.748247.
   Google Scholar
• Agarin, T., and K. Cordell. 2016. Minority Rights and Minority Protection in Europe. London: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Alijeva, L. 2017. “Left Behind? A Critical Study of the Russian-Speaking Minority Rights to Citizenship and Language in the Post-Soviet Baltic States. Lessons from Nationalising Language Policies.” International Journal on Minority and Group Rights 24 (4): 484–536. doi:https://doi.org/10.1163/15718115-02404004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auers, D. 2003. “Latvia’s 2002 Elections—Dawn of a New Era?” East European Constitutional Review 11: 12.
   Google Scholar
• Bågenholm, A. 2013. “The Electoral Fate and Policy Impact of “Anti-corruption Parties” in Central and Eastern Europe.” Human Affairs 23 (2): 174–195. doi:https://doi.org/10.2478/s13374-013-0118-4.
   Google Scholar
• Balch, G. 1974. “Multiple Indicators in Survey Research: The Concept ‘Sense of Political Efficacy.’.” Political Methodology 1: 1–43.
   Google Scholar
• Bohle, D., and B. Greskovits. 2012. Capitalist Diversity on Europe’s Periphery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Braghiroli, S., and V. Petsinis. 2019. “Between Party-Systems and Identity-Politics: The Populist and Radical Right in Estonia and Latvia.” European Politics and Society 20 (4): 431–449. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23745118.2019.1569340.
   Google Scholar
• Brosig, M. 2010. “The Challenge of Implementing Minority Rights in Central Eastern Europe.” Journal of European Integration 32 (4): 393–411. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/07036331003797539.
   Google Scholar
• Brubaker, R. 1996. Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Caporaso, J. 2018. “Europe’s Triple Crisis and the Uneven Role of Institutions: The Euro, Refugees and Brexit.” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 56 (6): 1345–1361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cederman, L.-E., H. Buhaug, and J. Ketil Rød. 2009. “Ethno-Nationalist Dyads and Civil War: A GIS-Based Analysis.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 53 (4): 496–525. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709336455.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centrālā Statistikas Pārvalde. 2018. “Latvijas Oficiālā Statistika.” Accessed 6 November 2018. http://data1.csb.gov.lv/pxweb/en/iedz/iedz__iedzrakst/IRG110.px/table/tableViewLayout1/?rxid=0cebbc5d-dfba-43d1-903e-e18eb1de0eaf
   Google Scholar
• Centrālā Statistikas Pārvalde. 2019. Latvija. Galvenie Statistikas Rādītāji 2019. Riga: Centrālā Statistikas Pārvalde.
   Google Scholar
• Chandra, K. 2007. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Charnysh, V., C. Lucas, and P. Singh. 2015. “The Ties that Bind National Identity Salience and Pro-Social Behavior toward the Ethnic Other.” Comparative Political Studies 48 (3): 267–300. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414014543103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheskin, A. 2012. “Synthesis and Conflict: Russian-Speakers’ Discursive Response to Latvia’s Nationalising State.” Europe-Asia Studies 64 (2): 325–347. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2011.642582.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cianetti, L. 2015. “Integrating Minorities in Times of Crisis: Issues of Displacement in the Estonian and Latvian Integration Programs.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 21 (2): 191–212. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13537113.2015.1032029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cianetti, L. 2018. “Consolidated Technocratic and Ethnic Hollowness, but No Backsliding: Reassessing Europeanisation in Estonia and Latvia.” East European Politics 34 (3): 317–336. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/21599165.2018.1482212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cianetti, L., and R. Nakai. 2017. “Critical Trust in European Institutions: The Case of the Russian-Speaking Minorities in Estonia and Latvia.” Problems of Post-Communism 64 (5): 1–15. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2016.1237292.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csergő, Z., and A.-C. Regelmann. 2017. “Europeanization and Collective Rationality in Minority Voting: Lessons from Central and Eastern Europe.” Problems of Post-Communism 64 (5): 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlberg, M., K. Edmark, and H. Lundqvist. 2012. “Ethnic Diversity and Preferences for Redistribution.” Journal of Political Economy 120 (1): 41–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/665800.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duina, F., and C. Miani. 2015. “Fitting in the Baltics: National Identity, Minorities and Compliance with EU Accession Requirements in Lithuania and Latvia.” Comparative European Politics 13 (5): 535–552. doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/cep.2014.5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duvold, K., and S. Berglund. 2014. “Democracy between Ethnos and Demos: Territorial Identification and Political Support in the Baltic States.” East European Politics & Societies 28 (2): 341–365. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0888325413511851.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehin, P. 2007. “Political Support in the Baltic States, 1993–2004.” Journal of Baltic Studies 38 (1): 1–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01629770701223486.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Social Survey. 2008. “Round 4 Data. Data File Edition 4.4. NSD - Norwegian Centre for Research Data, Norway – Data Archive and Distributor of ESS Data for ESS ERIC.” doi:https://doi.org/10.21338/NSD-ESS4-2008
   Google Scholar
• European Values Study. 2016. “2008: Integrated Dataset (EVS 2008). GESIS Data Archive, Cologne. ZA4800 Data File Version 4.0.0.” doi:https://doi.org/10.4232/1.12458
   Google Scholar
• Fearon, J., and D. Laitin. 2003. “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97 (1): 75–90. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055403000534.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galbreath, D. 2006. “European Integration through Democratic Conditionality: Latvia in the Context of Minority Rights.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 14 (1): 69–87. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/14782800600617961.
   Google Scholar
• Galbreath, D., and D. Auers. 2009. “Green, Black and Brown: Uncovering Latvia’s Environmental Politics.” Journal of Baltic Studies 40 (3): 333–348. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01629770903086244.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galbreath, D., and J. McEvoy. 2012. The European Minority Rights Regime: Towards a Theory of Regime Effectiveness. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave.
   Google Scholar
• Hanley, S., and A. Sikk. 2016. “Economy, Corruption or Floating Voters? Explaining the Breakthroughs of Anti-Establishment Reform Parties in Eastern Europe.” Party Politics 22 (4): 522–533. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068814550438.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higashijima, M., and R. Nakai. 2016. “Elections, Ethnic Parties, and Ethnic Identification in New Democracies: Evidence from the Baltic States.” Studies in Comparative International Development 51 (2): 124–146. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12116-015-9187-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooghe, M., and E. Quintelier. 2014. “Political Participation in European Countries: The Effect of Authoritarian Rule, Corruption, Lack of Good Governance and Economic Downturn.” Comparative European Politics 12 (2): 209–232. doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/cep.2013.3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horowitz, D. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ījabs, I. 2016. “After the Referendum Militant Democracy and Nation-Building in Latvia.” East European Politics & Societies 30 (2): 288–314. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0888325415593630.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jutila, M. 2015. “Securitization, History, and Identity: Some Conceptual Clarifications and Examples from Politics of Finnish War History.” Nationalities Papers 43 (6): 927–943. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2015.1065402.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaprāns, M., and I. Mieriņa. 2019. “Minority Reconsidered: Towards a Typology of Latvia’s Russophone Identity.” Europe-Asia Studies 71 (1): 24–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2018.1556250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kochenov, D., V. Poleshchuk., and A. Dimitrovs. 2013. “Do Professional Linguistic Requirements Discriminate? A Legal Analysis: Estonia and Latvia in the Spotlight.” In European Yearbook of Minority Issues, 137–187. Vol. 10 (1). Brill: Nijhoff, Netherlands.
   Google Scholar
• Kostadinova, T. 2003. “Voter Turnout Dynamics in Post-Communist Europe.” European Journal of Political Research 42 (6): 741–759. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00102.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kott, M. 2017. “The Roots of Radicalism: Persistent Problems of Class and Ethnicity in Latvia’s Politics.” In Latvia – A Work in Progress? 100 Years of State- and Nation-Building, edited by D. Smith, 279–313. Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Kuris, G. 2012. “Surmounting State Capture: Latvia’s Anti-Corruption Agency Spurs Reforms, 2002–2011.” Princeton: Innovations for Successful Societies. Accessed 28 May 2014. https://successfulsocieties.princeton.edu/sites/successfulsocieties/files/Latvia%20ToU.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Kuzio, T. 2001. “Transition in Post-Communist States: Triple or Quadruple?” Politics 21 (3): 168–177. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.00148.
   Google Scholar
• Lamoreaux, J., and N. Dyerly. 2018. “Does Latvia Matter in Regional Geopolitics?” Journal on Baltic Security 4 (1): 15–23. doi:https://doi.org/10.2478/jobs-2018-0002.
   Google Scholar
• Landwehr, C., and N. Steiner. 2017. “Where Democrats Disagree: Citizens’ Normative Conceptions of Democracy.” Political Studies 65 (4): 786–804. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321717715398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lederach, J. P. 1997. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press.
   Google Scholar
• Levitz, P., and G. Pop-Eleches. 2010. “Why No Backsliding? the European Union’s Impact on Democracy and Governance before and after Accession.” Comparative Political Studies 43 (4): 457–485. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414009355266.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linz, J., and A. Stepan. 1996. Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation. Southern Europe, South America, and post-Communist Europe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• LSM. 2018. “LSM Election Preview Podcast Special.” https://eng.lsm.lv/article/politics/election/lsm-saeima-election-preview-podcast-special-with-daunis-auers.a294059/.
   Google Scholar
• Lühiste, K. 2006. “Explaining Trust in Political Institutions: Some Illustrations from the Baltic States.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 39 (4): 475–496. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2006.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansbridge, J. 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes.’.” Journal of Politics 61 (3): 628–657. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClelland, B. 2019. “Candidate Ethnic Identification in Post-Soviet Latvian Elections.” Paper presented at the Association for the Study of Nationalities World Convention, New York City, 2–4 May.
   Google Scholar
• Mesežnikov, G., O. Gyarfášová, and Z. Bútorová. 2013. Alternative Politics?: The Rise of New Political Parties in Central Europe. Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs.
   Google Scholar
• Mishler, W., and R. Rose. 1999. “Five Years after the Fall: Trajectories of Support for Democracy in Post-Communist Europe.” In Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance, edited by P. Norris, 78–99. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mishler, W., and R. Rose. 2001. “Political Support for Incomplete Democracies: Realist Vs. Idealist Theories and Measures.” International Political Science Review 22 (4): 303–320. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512101022004002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muiznieks, N., J. Rozenvalds, and I. Birka. 2013. “Ethnicity and Social Cohesion in the Post-Soviet Baltic States.” Patterns of Prejudice 47 (3): 288–308. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2013.812349.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mylonas, H. 2013. The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nakai, R. 2014. “The Influence of Party Competition on Minority Politics: A Comparison of Latvia and Estonia.” JEMIE 13 (1): 57–85.
   Google Scholar
• Norris, P. 2011. Democratic Deficit: Critical Citizens Revisited. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Offe, C. 1991. “Capitalism by Democratic Design? Democratic Theory Facing the Triple Transition in East Central Europe.” Social Research 58 (4): 865–892.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petsinis, V. 2020. “Geopolitics, Ethnopolitics and the EU: The Cases of Serbia and Latvia.” Ethnopolitics 19 (2): 107–124. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17449057.2019.1630943.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilsonības un Migrācijas Lietu Pārvalde. 2017. Pētijums: Latvijas Nepilsoņu Atteiksme Pret Latvijas Pilsonības Iegūšanu. Riga: Pilsonības un Migrācijas Lietu Pārvaldes Naturalizācijas Pārvalde.
   Google Scholar
• Pirro, A. 2014. “Populist Radical Right Parties in Central and Eastern Europe: The Different Context and Issues of the Prophets of the Patria.” Government and Opposition 49 (4): 600–629. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2013.32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plakans, A. 2009. “Latvia: Normality and Disappointment.” East European Politics and Societies 23 (4): 518–525. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0888325409342112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poleshchuk, V., and B. Tsilevich. 2004. “The Baltic States before the EU Accession: Recent Developments in Minority Protection.” In European Yearbook of Minority Issues. Volume 2/2002/3, edited by A. Bloed, 283–305. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Pop-Eleches, G. 2010. “Throwing Out the Bums: Protest Voting and Unorthodox Parties after Communism.” World Politics 62 (2): 221–260. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887110000043.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell, E. N., and J. Tucker. 2014. “Revisiting Electoral Volatility in Post-Communist Countries: New Data, New Results and New Approaches.” British Journal of Political Science 44 (1): 123–147. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123412000531.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pridham, G. 2018. “Latvia’s Eastern Region: International Tensions and Political System Loyalty.” Journal of Baltic Studies 49 (1): 3–20. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2017.1413408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regelmann, A.-C. 2014. “Introduction-Minority Participation in Estonia and Latvia.” Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe 13 (1): 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Roe, P. 2006. “Reconstructing Identities or Managing Minorities? Desecuritizing Minority Rights: A Response to Jutila.” Security Dialogue 37 (3): 425–438. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010606069060.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, R., S. Berglund, and N. Munro. 2005. Baltic Identities and Interests in A European Setting: A Bottom up Perspective. Glasgow: Centre for the Study of Public Policy.
   Google Scholar
• Rybář, M., and K. Deegan-Krause. 2008. “Slovakia’s Communist Successor Parties in Comparative Perspective.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 41 (4): 497–519. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2008.09.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salehyan, I. 2009. Rebels without Borders: Transnational Insurgencies in World Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sikk, A. 2005. “How Unstable? Volatility and the Genuinely New Parties in Eastern Europe.” European Journal of Political Research 44 (3): 391–412. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2005.00232.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smooha, S., and P. Järve. 2005. The Fate of Ethnic Democracy in Post-Communist Europe. Budapest: Open Society Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Stavrakakis, Y., G. Katsambekis, A. Kioupkiolis, N. Nikisianis, and T. Siomos. 2018. “Populism, Anti-Populism and Crisis.” Contemporary Political Theory 17 (1): 4–27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/s41296-017-0142-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taagepera, R. 2006. “Meteoric Trajectory: The Res Publica Party in Estonia.” Democratization 13 (1): 78–94. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/13510340500378274.
   Google Scholar
• Usherwood, S. 2019. “Shooting the Fox? UKIP’s Populism in the Post-Brexit Era.” West European Politics 42 (6): 1209–1229. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2019.1596692.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vachudova, M., and L. Hooghe. 2009. “Postcommunist Politics in a Magnetic Field: How Transition and EU Accession Structure Party Competition on European Integration.” Comparative European Politics 7 (2): 179–212. doi:https://doi.org/10.1057/cep.2008.9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Biezen, I., and T. Poguntke. 2014. “The Decline of Membership-Based Politics.” Party Politics 20 (2): 205–216. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068813519969.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Houten, P. 1998. “The Role of a Minority’s Reference State in Ethnic Relations.” European Journal of Sociology 39 (1): 110–146. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003975600007815.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfinger, R., and S. Rosenstone. 1980. Who Votes? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zepa, B., and I. Šūpule. 2006. “Ethnopolitical Tension in Latvia: Factors Facilitating and Impeding Ethnic Accord.” In Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and International Dimensions, edited by N. Muižnieks, 33–40. Riga: LU Akademiskais apgads.
   Google Scholar