Disillusionment and Change: A Cognitive-Emotional Theory of Gang Exit

REFERENCES

• Agnew, Robert. 1984. “Goal Achievement and Delinquency.” Sociology and Social Research 68:435–451.
   Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert. 1985. “A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency.” Social Forces 64(1):151–167.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akers, Ronald L. 1973. Deviant Behavior: A Social Learning Approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, Elijah. 1990. Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, Elijah. 1999. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City. New York: W.W. Norton and Company.
   Google Scholar
• Athens, Lonnie H. 1992. The Creation of Dangerous Violent Criminals. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ball, Richard A. and David G. Curry. 1995. “The Logic of Definition in Criminology: Purposes and Methods for Defining ‘Gangs.’” Criminology 33:225–245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumrind, Diana. 1966. “Effects of Authoritative Parental Control on Child Behavior.” Child Development 37:887–907.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumrind, Diana. 2005. “Patterns of Parental Authority and Adolescent Autonomy.” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 108:61–69.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Becker, Howard. 1963. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bjoro, Tore. 2009. “Processes of Disengagement from Violent Groups of the Extreme Right.” Pp. 30–48 in Leaving Terrorism Behind: Individual and Collective Disengagement, edited by Tore Bjoro and John Horgan. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Blos, Peter. 1967. “The Second Individuation Process of Adolescence.” Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 22:162–186.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Blumer, Herbert. 1969. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Berkley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Broadhead, Robert S. 1983. The Private Lives and Professional Identity of Medical Students. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
   Google Scholar
• Bromley, David G. and Anson Shupe. 1979. Moonies in America: Cult, Church, and Crusade. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Burke, Peter J. 1991. “Identity Processes and Social Stress.” American Sociological Review 56:836–849.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, Peter J. and Donald C. Reitzes. 1991. “An Identity Theory Approach to Commitment.” Social Psychology Quarterly 54(3):239–251.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, Peter J. and Jan E. Stets. 1999. “Trust and Commitment through Self-Verification.” Social Psychology Quarterly 62(4):347–366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke, Peter J. and Jan E. Stets. 2009. Identity Theory. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, A. 1984. The Girls in the Gang: A Report from New York City. New York: Basil Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Caspi, Avshalom and Terrie E. Moffitt. 1993. “When Do Individual Differences Matter? A Paradoxical Theory of Personality Coherence.” Psychological Inquiry 4(4):247–271.
   Google Scholar
• Casserly, Tim and David Megginson. 2009. Learning from Burnout: Developing Sustainable Leaders and Avoiding Career Derailment. Boston: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann.
   Google Scholar
• Cloward, Richard A. and Lloyd E. Ohlin. 1960. Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, Albert K. 1955. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, Albert K. 1965. “The Sociology of the Deviant Act: Anomie Theory and Beyond.” American Sociological Review 30(1):5–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curry, G. David, Scott H. Decker, and Arlen Egley Jr. 2002. “Gang Involvement and Delinquency in a Middle School Population.” Justice Quarterly 19(2):301–318.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decker, Scott H. 1996. “Collective and Normative Features of Gang Violence.” Justice Quarterly 13(2):243–264.
   Google Scholar
• Decker, Scott H., Charles M. Katz, and Vincent J. Webb. 2008. “Understanding the Black Box of Gang Organization: Implications for Involvement in Violent Crime, Drug Sales, and Violent Victimization.” Crime and Delinquency 54(1):153–172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decker, Scott H. and Janet L. Lauritsen. 2002. “Leaving the Gang.” Pp. 51–67 in Gangs in America (3rd ed.), edited by Ronald C. Huff. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Decker, Scott H. and David C. Pyrooz. 2011. “Leaving the Gang: Logging Off and Moving On.” Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved July 15, 2013 (http://www.cfr.org/counterradicalization/save-supporting-document-leaving-gang/p26590).
   Google Scholar
• Decker, Scott H. and Barrik Van Winkle. 1996. Life in the Gang: Family, Friends, and Violence. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Delaney, Tim. 2006. American Street Gangs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• DeLisi, Matt, J. C. Barnes, Kevin M. Beaver, and Chris L. Gibson. 2009. “Delinquent Gangs and Adolescent Victimization Revisited: A Propensity Score Matching Approach.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 36:808–823.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Della Porta, Donatella. 2009. “Leaving Underground Organizations.” Pp. 66–87 in Leaving Terrorism Behind: Individual and Collective Disengagement, edited by Tore Bjoro and John Horgan. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Denzin, Norman K. 1989. Interpretive Interactionism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Denzin, Norman K. 1992. Symbolic Interactionism and Cultural Studies: The Politics of Interpretation. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Dolan, Edward and Shan Finney. 1984. Youth Gangs. New York: Simon and Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Ebaugh, Helen R. F. 1988. Becoming an Ex: The Process of Role Exit. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Edelwich, Jerry and Archie Brodsky. 1980. Burn-Out—Stages of Disillusionment in the Helping Professions. New York: Human Sciences Press.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, David C. 1999. Motivation and Emotion: Evolutionary, Psychological, Cognitive, and Social Influences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Felson, Marcus. 2006. “The Street Gang Strategy.” Pp. 305–324 in Crime and Nature, edited by Marcus Felson. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Fleisher, Mark S. 2000. Dead End Kids: Gang Girls and the Boys they Know. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fleisher, Mark S. and Jessie L. Krienert. 2004. “Life-Course Events, Social Networks, and the Emergence of Violence among Female Gang Members.” Journal of Community Psychology 32(5):607–622.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fong, Robert S., Ronald E. Vogel, and Salvador Buentello. 1995. “Blood-in, Blood-out: The Rationale Behind Defecting from Prison Gangs.” Journal of Gang Research 2(4):45–51.
   Google Scholar
• Fox, Kathleen A., Jodi Lane, and Ronald L. Akers. 2010. “Do Perceptions of Neighborhood Disorganization Predict Crime or Victimization? An Examination of Gang Member versus Non-Gang Member Jail Inmates.” Journal of Criminal Justice 38:720–729.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson, Chris L., Mitchell Miller, Wesley G. Jennings, Marc Swatt, and Angela Gover. 2009. “Using Propensity Score Matching to Understand the Relationship between Gang Membership and Violent Victimization: A Research Note.” Justice Quarterly 26:625–643.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giordano, Peggy C., Stephen A. Cernkovich, and Donna D. Holland. 2003. “Changes in Friendship Relations over the Life Course: Implications for Desistance from Crime.” Criminology 41:293–328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giordano, Peggy C., Stephen A. Cernkovich, and Jennifer Rudolph. 2002. “Gender, Crime, and Desistance: Toward a Theory of Cognitive Transformation.” American Journal of Sociology 107:990–1064.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giordano, Peggy C., Ryan D. Schroeder, and Stephen A. Cernkovich. 2007. “Emotions and Crime over the Life Course: A Neo-Median Perspective on Criminal Continuity and Change.” American Journal of Sociology 112:1603–1661.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman, Erving. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Anchor Books.
   Google Scholar
• Goffman, Erving. 1961. Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
   Google Scholar
• Gover, Angela R., Wesley G. Jennings, and Richard Tewksbury. 2009. “Adolescent Male and Female Gang Members’ Experiences with Violent Victimization, Dating Violence, and Sexual Assault.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 34:103–115.
   Google Scholar
• Hagedorn, John M. 1994. “Homeboys, Dope Fiends, Legits, and New Jacks.” Criminology 32:197–219.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, Christine H. 1995. “Predicting Cognitive and Behavioral Effects of Gangsta Rap.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 16:43–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heimer, Karen and Ross L. Matsueda. 1994. “Role-Taking, Role Commitment, and Delinquency: A Theory of Differential Social Control.” American Sociological Review 59:365–390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobart, Charles W. 1958. “Disillusionment in Marriage, and Romanticism.” Marriage and Family Living 20(2):156–162.
   Google Scholar
• Horowitz, Ruth. 1983. Honor and the American Dream: Culture and Identity in a Chicano Community. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Howell, James C. 1999. “Youth Gang Homicides: A Literature Review.” Crime and Delinquency 45:208–241.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, Lorine A. and James F. Short. 2005. “Disputes Involving Youth Street Gang Members: Micro-Social Contexts.” Criminology 43:43–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, William. 1918. Principles of Psychology. New York: Holt.
   Google Scholar
• Jankowski, Martin S. 1991. Islands in the Street: Gangs and American Urban Society. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Katz, Charles M. and Vincent J. Webb. 2006. Policing Gangs in America. New York: Cambridge Press.
   Google Scholar
• Katz, Charles M., Vincent J. Webb, and David R. Schaefer. 2000. “The Validity of Police Gang Intelligence Lists: Examining Differences in Delinquency between Documented Gang Members and Non-Documented Delinquent Youth.” Police Quarterly 3:413–437.
   Google Scholar
• Katz, Jack. 1988. Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Klein, Malcolm W. 1995. The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Klein, Malcolm W. 2004. Gang Cop: The Words and Ways of Officer Paco Domingo. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.
   Google Scholar
• Klein, Malcolm W. and Cheryl L. Maxson. 1989. “Street Gang Violence.” Pp. 198–234 in Violent Crimes, Violent Criminals, edited by Neil A. Weiner and Marvin E. Wolfgang. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Laidler, Karen A. and Geoffrey Hunt. 1997. “Violence and Social Organization in Female Gangs.” Social Justice 24(4):148–169.
   Google Scholar
• Lemert, Edwin M. 1951. Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Levitt, Steven D. and Stephen J. Dubner. 2005. Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything. New York: HarperCollins.
   Google Scholar
• Levitt, Steven D. and Sudhir A. Venkatesh. 2000. “An Economic Analysis of a Drug-Selling Gang’s Finances.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 115:755–789.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leyton, Stacey. 2003. “The New Blacklists: The Threat to Civil Liberties Posed by Gang Databases.” Pp. 109–172 in Crime Control and Social Justice, The Delicate Balance, edited by Darnell F. Hawkins, Samuel L. Meyers, and Randolph N. Stone. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
   Google Scholar
• Maruna, Shadd and Stephen Farrall. 2004. “Desistance from Crime: A Theoretical Reformulation.” Koelner Zeitrschrift fuer Soziologie und Socialpsychologie 43:171–194.
   Google Scholar
• Maruna, Shadd, Thomas P. Lebel, Nick Mitchell, and Michelle Naples. 2004. “Pygmalion in the Reintegration Process: Desistance from Crime through the Looking Glass.” Psychology, Crime, and Law 10(3):271–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maslow, Abraham H. 1943. “A Theory of Human Motivation.” Psychological Review 50:370–396.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxson, Cheryl M. 1999. “Gang Homicide: A Review and Extension of the Literature.” Pp. 239–254 in Homicide: A Sourcebook of Social Research, edited by M. Dwayne Smith and Margaret A. Zahn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Mead, George H. 1934. Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, Jody. 1998. “Gender and Victimization Risk among Young Women in Gangs.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 35:429–453.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, Jody. 2001. One of the Guys: Girls, Gangs, and Gender. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, Jody and Scott H. Decker. 2001. “Young Women and Gang Violence: Gender, Street Offending, and Violent Victimization in Gangs.” Justice Quarterly 18(1):115–140.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, Joan W. 1978. Homeboys: Gangs, Drugs, and Prison in the Barrios of Los Angeles. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, Joan W. 1991. Going Down to the Barrio: Homeboys and Homegirls in Change. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mortimer, Jeylan T., Michael D. Finch, and Donald Kumka. 1982. “Persistence and Change in Development: The Multidimensional Self-Concept.” Pp. 263–313 in Life Span Development and Behavior, edited by Paul B. Baltes and Orville G. Brim. New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Padilla, Felix M. 1992. The Gang as an American Enterprise. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Papachristos, Andrew V. and David S. Kirk. 2006. “Neighborhood Effects and Street Gang Behavior.” Pp. 63–84 in Studying Youth Gangs, edited by James F. Short and Lorine A. Hughes. Lanham, MD: AltaMira.
   Google Scholar
• Paternoster, Ray and Shawn Bushway. 2009. “Desistance and the ‘Feared Self’: Toward an Identity Theory of Criminal Desistance.” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 99:1103–1156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peele, Stanton and Archie Brodsky. 1975. Love and Addiction. New York: Taplinger Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, Dana, Terrance J. Taylor, and Finn-Aage Esbensen. 2004. “Gang Membership and Violent Victimization.” Justice Quarterly 21:793–815.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyrooz, David C. 2012. “The Non-Criminal Consequences of Gang Membership: Impacts on Education and Employment in the Life-Course.” Doctoral Dissertation, Arizona State University.
   Google Scholar
• Pyrooz, David C. and Scott H. Decker. 2011. “Motives and Methods for Leaving the Gang: Understanding the Process of Gang Desistance.” Journal of Criminal Justice 39(5):417–425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyrooz, David C., Scott H. Decker, and Vincent J. Webb. 2014. “The Ties that Bind: Desistance from Gangs.” Crime and Delinquency 60:491–516.
   Google Scholar
• Reiner, Ira. 1992. Gangs, Crime, and Violence in Los Angeles: Findings and Proposals from the District Attorney’s Office. Arlington, VA: National Youth Gang Information Center.
   Google Scholar
• Sanders, William B. 1994. Gangbangs and Drive-bys: Grounded Culture and Juvenile Gang Violence. New York: Aldine DeGruyter.
   Google Scholar
• Schneider, Eric C. 1999. Vampires, Dragons, and Egyptian Kings: Youth Gangs in Postwar New York. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw, Clifford R. and Henry D. McKay. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency in Urban Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sheldon, Randall G., Sharon K. Tracy, and William B. Brown. 2013. Youth Gangs in American Society (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson.
   Google Scholar
• Short, James F. and Fred L. Strodtbeck. 1964. Group Process and Gang Delinquency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Simi, Pete, Bryan F. Bubolz, and Ann Hardman. 2013. “Military Experience, Identity Discrepancies, and Far Right Terrorism: An Exploratory Analysis.” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 36:654–671.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spano, Richard, Joshua D. Freilich, and John Bolland. 2008. “Gang Membership, Gun Carrying, and Employment: Applying Routine Activities Theory to Explain Violent Victimization among Inner City Youth Living in Extreme Poverty.” Justice Quarterly 25:381–410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spergel, Irving A. 1995. The Youth Gang Problem: A Community Approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Spergel, Irving A. and David Curry. 1990. “Strategies and Perceived Agency Effectiveness in Dealing with the Youth Gang Problem.” Pp. 288–309 in Gangs in America (2nd ed.), edited by C. Ronald Huff. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Stets, Jan E. 2005. “Examining Emotions in Identity Theory.” Social Psychology Quarterly 68(1):39–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stets, Jan E. and Teresa M. Tsushima. 2001. “Negative Emotion and Coping Responses within Identity Control Theory.” Social Psychology Quarterly 64:283–295.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stretesky, Paul B. and Mark R. Pogrebin. 2007. “Gang-Related Gun Violence: Socialization, Identity, and Self.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 36(1):85–114.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stryker, Sheldon. 1968. “Identity Salience and Role Performance: The Relevance of Symbolic Interaction Theory for Family Research.” Journal of Marriage and Family 30:558–564.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stryker, Sheldon and Peter J. Burke. 2000. “The Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory.” Social Psychology Quarterly 63:284–297.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stryker, Sheldon, Timothy J. Owens, and Robert W. White. 2000. Self, Identity, and Social Movements. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sweeten, Gary, David C. Pyrooz, and Alex R. Piquero. 2013. “Disengaging from Gangs and Desistance from Crime.” Justice Quarterly 30:469–500.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tannenbaum, Frank. 1938. Crime and Community. New York: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, Terrance J., Adrienne Freng, Finn-Aage Esbensen, and Dana Peterson. 2008. “Youth Gang Membership and Serious Violent Victimization: The Importance of Lifestyles and Routine Activities.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 23:1441–1464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, Terrance J., Dana Peterson, Finn-Aage Esbensen, and Adrienne Freng. 2007. “Gang Membership as a Risk Factor for Adolescent Violent Victimization.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 44(4):351–380.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornberry, Terence P., Marvin D. Krohn, Alan J. Lizotte, Carolyn A. Smith, and Kimberly Tobin. 2003. Gangs and Delinquency in Developmental Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thrasher, Frederic M. 1927. The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Toy, Calvin. 1992. “Coming Out to Play: Reasons to Join and Participate in Asian Gangs.” Gang Journal 1(1):13–29.
   Google Scholar
• Valdez, A. 2007. Mexican American Girls and Gang Violence: Beyond Risk. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Varriale, Jennifer A. 2008. “Female Gang Members and Desistance: Pregnancy as a Possible Exit Strategy?” Journal of Gang Research 15(4):35–59.
   Google Scholar
• Venkatesh, Sudhir A. 1997. “The Social Organization of Street Gang Activity in an Urban Ghetto.” The American Journal of Sociology 103(1):82–111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkatesh, Sudhir A. 2008. Gang Leader for a Day: A Rogue Sociologist Takes to the Streets. New York: The Penguin Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vigil, James D. 1988a. Barrio Gangs: Street Life and Identity in Southern California. Austin: University of Texas Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vigil, James D. 1988b. “Group Processes and Street Identity: Adolescent Chicano Gang Members.” Ethos 16(4):421–445.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, William J. 1996. When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New York: Alfred Knopf.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, William J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zimbardo, Phillip G. 1969. “The Human Choice: Individuation, Reason, and Order vs. Deindividuation, Impulse, and Chaos.” Pp. 237–307 in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, edited by W. T. Arnold and D. Levine. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
   Google Scholar