Retaining Front-Line Personnel in a Pandemic: Examining the Effects of Preparation and Capacity to Respond

References

• Abdel-Baqui, O. (2021, January 6). Detroit sees sharp increase in homicides, shootings in 2020. Detroit Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Abelson, M. A., & Baysinger, B. D. (1984). Optimal and dysfunctional turnover: Toward an organizational level model. Academy of Management Review, 9(2), 331–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands‐resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
   Google Scholar
• Bakker, A., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. (2003). Dual processes at work in a call centre: An application of the job demands–resources model. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 12(4), 393–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320344000165
   Google Scholar
• Ballart, X., & Rico, G. (2018). Public or nonprofit? Career preferences and dimensions of public service motivation. Public Administration, 96(2), 404–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.12403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady, P. Q., & King, W. R. (2018). Brass satisfaction: Identifying the personal and work-related factors associated with job satisfaction among police chiefs. Police Quarterly, 21(2), 250–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611118759475
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brant, R. (1990). Assessing proportionality in the proportional odds model for ordinal logistic regression. Biometrics, 46(4), 1171–1178. https://doi.org/10.2307/2532457
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer, G. A., Selden, S. C., & Facer, R. L., II. (2000). Individual conceptions of public service motivation. Public Administration Review, 60(3), 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/0033-3352.00085
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bright, L. (2007). Does person-organization fit mediate the relationship between public service motivation and the job performance of public employees? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 27(4), 361–379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X07307149
   Google Scholar
• Brooke, P. P., Jr., & Price, J. L. (1989). The determinants of employee absenteeism: An empirical test of a causal model. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1989.tb00473.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan, B. (1974). Building organizational commitment: The socialization of managers in work organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 19(4), 533–546. https://doi.org/10.2307/2391809
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2021). U.S. Department of labor, the economics daily, quits rate of 2.9 percent in August 2021 an all-time high. Retrieved January 4, 2022. https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2021/quits-rate-of-2-9-percent-in-august-2021-an-all-time-high.htm
   Google Scholar
• Calvert, S., & Elinson, Z. (2020, December 26). Police are solving fewer murders during Covid-19 pandemic. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/police-are-solvingfewer-murders-during-covid-19-pandemic-11608994800
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. W., & Im, T. (2016). PSM and turnover intention in public organizations: Does change-oriented organizational citizenship behavior play a role? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 36(4), 323–346. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X14567366
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cartwright, S., & Holmes, N. (2006). The meaning of work: The challenge of regaining employee engagement and reducing cynicism. Human Resource Management Review, 16(2), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2006.03.012
   Google Scholar
• Cascio, W. F. (1982). Costing human resources: The financial impact of behavior in organizations.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). What law enforcement personnel need to know about Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/downloads/guidance-law-enforcement.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chalfin, A., & McCrary, J. (2018). Are US cities underpoliced? Theory and evidence. Review of Economics and Statistics, 100(1), 167–186. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00694
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho, Y. J., & Lewis, G. B. (2012). Turnover intention and turnover behavior: Implications for retaining federal employees. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 32(1), 4–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X11408701
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clerkin, R. M., & Coggburn, J. D. (2012). The dimensions of public service motivation and sector work preferences. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 32(3), 209–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X11433880
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, I. (2021). Who is driving the great resignation? Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2021/09/who-is-driving-the-great-resignation
   Google Scholar
• Cotton, J. L., Vollrath, D. A., Froggatt, K. L., Lengnick-Hall, M. L., & Jennings, K. R. (1988). Employee participation: Diverse forms and different outcomes. The Academy of Management Review, 13(1), 8–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/258351
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crewson, P. E. (1997). Public-service motivation: Building empirical evidence of incidence and effect. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 7(4), 499–518. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jpart.a024363
   Google Scholar
• Cumming, E., Cumming, I., & Edell, L. (1965). Policemen as philosopher, guide and friend. Social Problems, 12(3), 276–286. https://doi.org/10.2307/798933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curry, J. P., Wakefield, D. S., Price, J. L., & Mueller, C. W. (1986). On the causal ordering of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Academy of Management Journal, 29(4), 847–858. https://doi.org/10.2307/255951
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Camargo, C. (2022). ‘It’s tough shit, basically, that you’re all gonna get it’: UK virus testing and police officer anxieties of contracting COVID-19. Policing and Society, 32(1), 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2021.1883609
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeHart-Davis, L., & Pandey, S. K. (2005). Red tape and public employees: Does perceived rule dysfunction alienate managers? Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 15(1), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mui007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeLeon, L., & Taher, W. (1996). Expectations and job satisfaction of local-government professionals. The American Review of Public Administration, 26(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/027507409602600402
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeSantis, V. S., & Durst, S. L. (1996). Comparing job satisfaction among public-and private-sector employees. The American Review of Public Administration, 26(3), 327–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/027507409602600305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deuchar, R., Fallik, S. W., & Crichlow, V. J. (2019). Despondent officer narratives and the ‘post-Ferguson’effect: Exploring law enforcement perspectives and strategies in a southern American state. Policing and Society, 29(9), 1042–1057. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2018.1480020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doerner, W. G. (1995). Officer retention patterns: An affirmative action concern for police agencies? American Journal of Police, 14(3/4), 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1108/07358549510112018
   Google Scholar
• Dulebohn, J. H., Bommer, W. H., Liden, R. C., Brouer, R. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange: Integrating the past with an eye toward the future. Journal of Management, 38(6), 1715–1759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311415280
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellickson, M. C., & Logsdon, K. (2002). Determinants of job satisfaction of municipal government employees. Public Personnel Management, 31(3), 343–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/009102600203100307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emmert, M. A., & Taher, W. A. (1992). Public sector professionals: The effects of public sector jobs on motivation, job satisfaction and work involvement. The American Review of Public Administration, 22(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/027507409202200103
   Google Scholar
• Favero, N., & Bullvock, J. B. (2015). How (not) to solve the problem: An evaluation of scholarly responses to common source bias. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 25(1), 285–308. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muu020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, G. G., Matthews, R. A., & Gibbons, A. M. (2016). Developing and investigating the use of single-item measures in organizational research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 21(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost, J. A. (2006). Predictors of job satisfaction and turnover intention in police organizations: A procedural approach [ Ph.D. dissertation]. University of Chicago.
   Google Scholar
• Grant, A. M. (2007). Relational job design and the motivation to make a prosocial difference. Academy of Management Review, 32(2), 393–417. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.24351328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffeth, R. W., Hom, P. W., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of antecedents and correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research implications for the next millennium. Journal of Management, 26(3), 463–488. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600305
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haarr, R. N. (2005). Factors affecting the decision of police recruits to “drop out” of police work. Police Quarterly, 8(4), 431–453. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611103261821
   Google Scholar
• Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work redesign. Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, R. N. (1973). The police academy: An inside view. John Wiley and Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Hays, S. W. (2004). Trends and best practices in state and local human resource management: Lessons to be learned? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 24(3), 256–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X04263142
   Google Scholar
• Helfers, R. C., & Nhan, J. (2021). A qualitative study: An examination of police officers’ lived experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Criminal Justice Review, 32(3), 308–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/10575677211050427
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, A. C., & Charbonneau, É. (2016). An examination of emergency services research in public administration. Public Administration Quarterly, 40(3)559–588.
   Google Scholar
• Herbert, S. (1998). Police subculture reconsidered. Criminology, 36(2), 343–370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01251.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilal, S., & Litsey, B. (2020). Reducing police turnover: Recommendations for the law enforcement agency. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 22(1), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355719882443
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman, C. Y., Hinkle, J. C., & Ledford, L. S. (2021). Beyond the “Ferguson effect” on crime: Examining its influence on law enforcement personnel. Crime & Delinquency, 001112872110524. https://doi.org/10.1177/00111287211052440
   Google Scholar
• Holt, S. B. (2018). For those who care: The effect of public service motivation on sector selection. Public Administration Review, 78(3), 457–471. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12906
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hom, P. W., & Griffeth, R. W. (1991). Structural equations modeling test of a turnover theory: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(3), 350. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.3.350
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huey, L., & Ricciardelli, R. (2015). ‘This isn’t what I signed up for’ when police officer role expectations conflict with the realities of general duty police work in remote communities. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 17(3), 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355715603590
   Google Scholar
• Hur, Y. (2013). Turnover, voluntary turnover, and organizational performance: Evidence from municipal police departments. Public Administration Quarterly, 37(1), 3–35.
   Google Scholar
• Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. (2023). COVID-19 estimated daily infections. https://covid19.healthdata.org/united-states-of-america?view=infections-testing&tab=trend&test=infections
   Google Scholar
• Jaramillo, F., Nixon, R., & Sams, D. (2005). The effect of law enforcement stress on organizational commitment. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 28(2), 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510510597933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, W. G., & Perez, N. M. (2020). The immediate impact of COVID-19 on law enforcement in the United States. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 690–701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09536-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. R. (2012). Police officer job satisfaction: A multidimensional analysis. Police Quarterly, 15(2), 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611112442809
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. R. (2015). Police organizational commitment: The influence of supervisor feedback and support. Crime & Delinquency, 61(9), 1155–1180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128712466887
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, M., & Board, T. (2020). Depolicing and the Ferguson effect: A survey of North Carolina law enforcement officers. Journal of Criminal Justice Professionals, 1(2), 8–24.
   Google Scholar
• Kellough, E. J., & Osuna, W. (1995). Cross-agency comparisons of quit rates in the federal service. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 15(4), 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X9501500406
   Google Scholar
• Kim, S. (2002). Participative management and job satisfaction: Lessons for management leadership. Public Administration Review, 62(2), 231–241. https://doi.org/10.1111/0033-3352.00173
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, S. (2004). Individual-level factors and organizational performance in government organizations. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 15(2), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mui013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, E., & Hogan, N. (2009). The importance of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in shaping turnover intent: A test of a causal model. Criminal Justice Review, 34(1), 96–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016808324230
   Google Scholar
• Lambert, E. G., Hogan, N. L., & Barton, S. M. (2001). The impact of job satisfaction on turnover intent: A test of a structural measurement model using a national sample of workers. The Social Science Journal, 38(2), 233–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0362-3319(01)00110-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laufs, J., & Waseem, Z. (2020). Policing in pandemics: A systematic review and best practices for police response to COVID-19. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 51, 101812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101812
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, N., Matthies, C., Ridgeway, G., & Gifford, B. (2009). To protect and to serve: Enhancing the efficiency of LAPD recruiting. RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG881.html
   Google Scholar
• Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services. Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2(5), 360–580.
   Google Scholar
• Locke, E. A. (1978). Job satisfaction reconsidered. American Psychologist, 33(9), 854–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.33.9.854
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch, J., & Tuckey, M. (2004). Understanding voluntary turnover: An examination of resignations in Australasian police organisations. Australasian Centre for Policing Research.
   Google Scholar
• Macy, B. A., Peterson, M. F., & Norton, L. W. (1989). A test of participation theory in a work re-design field setting: Degree of participation and comparison site contrasts. Human Relations, 42(12), 1095–1165. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872678904201203
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConkey, K. M., Huon, G. F., & Frank, M. G. (1996). Practical ethics in the police service. National Police Research Unit.
   Google Scholar
• McElroy, J. C., Morrow, P. C., & Rude, S. N. (2001). Turnover and organizational performance: A comparative analysis of the effects of voluntary, involuntary, and reduction-in-force turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(6), 1294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.6.1294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McElroy, J. C., Morrow, P. C., & Wardlow, T. R. (1999). A career stage analysis of police officer work commitment. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27(6), 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(99)00021-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, K. J., & Hicklin, A. (2008). Employee turnover and organizational performance: Testing a hypothesis from classical public administration. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 18(4), 573–590. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mum028
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, J. P., Allen, N. J., & Smith, C. A. (1993). Commitment to organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a three-component conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 538. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.538
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, H. A., Mire, S., & Kim, B. (2009). Predictors of job satisfaction among police officers: Does personality matter? Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(5), 419–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.07.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, K. I., & Monge, P. R. (1986). Participation, satisfaction, and productivity: A meta-analytic review. Academy of Management Journal, 29(4), 727–753. https://doi.org/10.2307/255942
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrow, W. J., Vickovic, S. G., Dario, L. M., & Shjarback, J. A. (2019). Examining a Ferguson effect on college students’ motivation to become police officers. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 30(4), 585–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2019.1619793
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mourtgos, S. M., & Adams, I. T. (2021). COVID-19 vaccine program eliminates law enforcement workforce infections: A Bayesian structural time series analysis. Police Practice & Research, 22(5), 1557–1565. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2021.1894937
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mourtgos, S. M., Adams, I. T., & Nix, J. (2022). Elevated police turnover following the summer of George Floyd protests: A synthetic control study. Criminology & Public Policy, 21(1), 9–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12556
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moynihan, D. P., & Pandey, S. K. (2008). The ties that bind: Social networks, person-organization value fit, and turnover intention. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 18(2), 205–227. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mum013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naff, K. C., & Crum, J. (1999). Working for America: Does public service motivation make a difference? Review of Public Personnel Administration, 19(4), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X9901900402
   Google Scholar
• Newiss, G., Charman, S., Ilett, C., Bennett, S., Ghaemmaghami, A., Smith, P., & Inkpen, R. (2022). Taking the strain? Police well-being in the COVID-19 era. The Police Journal, 95(1), 88–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X211044702
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nix, J., Pickett, J. T., Baek, H., & Alpert, G. P. (2019). Police research, officer surveys, and response rates. Policing and Society, 29(5), 530–550. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2017.1394300
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nix, J., & Wolfe, S. E. (2016). Sensitivity to the Ferguson effect: The role of managerial organizational justice. Journal of Criminal Justice, 47, 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.06.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien, R. M. (2007). A caution regarding rules of thumb for variance inflation factors. Quality & Quantity, 41(5), 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-006-9018-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orrick, D. W. (2008). Recruitment, retention, and turnover of police personnel: Reliable, practical, and effective solutions. Charles C. Thomas.
   Google Scholar
• Paoline, E. A., III, & Gau, J. M. (2020). An empirical assessment of the sources of police job satisfaction. Police Quarterly, 23(1), 55–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611119875117
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, S. K., Williams, H. M., & Turner, N. (2006). Modeling the antecedents of proactive behavior at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(3), 636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, J. L. (1996). Measuring public service motivation: An assessment of construct reliability and validity. Journal of Public Administration Research & Theory, 6(1), 5–22.
   Google Scholar
• Perry, R. W. (2004). The relationship of affective organizational commitment with supervisory trust. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 24(2), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X03262452
   Google Scholar
• Perry, J. L., & Vandenabeele, W. (2015). Public service motivation research: Achievements, challenges, and future directions. Public Administration Review, 75(5), 692–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12430
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, J. L., & Wise, L. R. (1990). The motivational bases of public service. Public Administration Review, 50(3), 367–373. https://doi.org/10.2307/976618
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piatak, J. S. (2016). Public service motivation, prosocial behaviours, and career ambitions. International Journal of Manpower, 37(5), 804–821.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piza, E. L., & Chillar, V. F. (2021). The effect of police layoffs on crime: A natural experiment involving New Jersey’s two largest cities. Justice Evaluation Journal, 4(2), 176–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/24751979.2020.1858697
   Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 539–569. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raganella, A. J., & White, M. D. (2004). Race, gender, and motivation for becoming a police officer: Implications for building a representative police department. Journal of Criminal Justice, 32(6), 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2004.08.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rainey, H. G. (2014). Understanding and managing public organizations. Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Reiner, M. D., & Zhao, J. (1999). The determinants of job satisfaction among United States air force security police: A test of rival theoretical predictive models. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 19(3), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X9901900301
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, R., & Lopez, E. (2021). Pandemic, social unrest, and crime in U.S. cities.
   Google Scholar
• Sandrin, R., & Simpson, R. (2022). Public assessments of police during the COVID-19 pandemic: The effects of procedural justice and personal protective equipment. Policing: An International Journal, 45(1), 154–168. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2021-0045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi‐sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 25(3), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selden, S. C., & Moynihan, D. P. (2000). A model of voluntary turnover in state government. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 20(2), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734371X0002000206
   Google Scholar
• Selden, S. C., & Sowa, J. E. (2015). Voluntary turnover in nonprofit human service organizations: The impact of high performance work practices. Human Service Organizations, Management, Leadership & Governance, 39(3), 182–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/23303131.2015.1031416
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sener, H., Arikan, I., Gündüz, N., & Gülekci, Y. (2021). Detecting the relationship between the stress levels and perceived burnout in law-enforcement officers during the COVID-19 outbreak: A cross-sectional study. Social Work in Public Health, 36(4), 486–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2021.1915910
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sganga, N. (2023, January 11). Law enforcement officers’ deaths due to COVID feel by 83% in 22 according to new data. CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/2022-law-enforcement-officers-covid-deaths/
   Google Scholar
• Shane, J. (2020). Stress inside police departments. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429297229
   Google Scholar
• Shaw, J. D., Gupta, N., & Delery, J. E. (2005). Alternative conceptualizations of the relationship between voluntary turnover and organizational performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48(1), 50–68. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2005.15993112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2016). Teacher stress and teacher self-efficacy as predictors of engagement, emotional exhaustion, and motivation to leave the teaching profession. Creative Education, 7(13), 1785. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2016.713182
   Google Scholar
• Sparger, J. R., & Giacopassi, D. J. (1983). Opping out: Why police leave the force. In R. R. Bennett (Ed.), Police at work: Policy issues and analysis (pp. 107–124). Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Spector, P. E. (1986). Perceived control by employees: A meta-analysis of studies concerning autonomy and participation at work. Human Relations, 39(11), 1005–1016. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872678603901104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spielberger, C. D., Westberry, L. G., Grier, K. S., & Greenfield, G. (1981). The police stress survey: Sources of stress in law enforcement. National Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Stogner, J., Miller, B. L., & McLean, K. (2020). Police stress, mental health, and resiliency during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 718–730. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09548-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Switzer, M. E. (2006). Recruitment & retention: Best practices update. Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training.
   Google Scholar
• Tehrani, N. (2022). The psychological impact of COVID-19 on police officers. The Police Journal, 95(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X211039975
   Google Scholar
• Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993). Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and turnover: Path analyses based on meta‐analytic findings. Personnel Psychology, 46(2), 259–293. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1993.tb00874.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres, J., Reling, T., & Hawdon, J. (2018). Role conflict and the psychological impacts of the Post-Ferguson period on law enforcement motivation, cynicism, and apprehensiveness. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 33(4), 358–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9284-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Treisman, R. (2022, January 12). COVID was again the leading cause of death among U.S. law enforcement in 2021. NPR.
   Google Scholar
• Tummers, L. G., & Knies, E. (2013). Leadership and meaningful work in the public sector. Public Administration Review, 73(6), 859–868. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12138
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). American Community Survey. https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice (2016). Law Enforcement Management and Administration Statistics (LEMAS). https://bjs.ojp.gov/data-collection/law-enforcement-management-and-administrative-statistics-lemas
   Google Scholar
• Van Maanen, J. (1973). Observations on the making of policemen. Human Organization, 32(4), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.32.4.13h7x81187mh8km8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, J. M., Dalton, E., Scheer, C., & Grammich, C. A. (2010). Police recruitment and retention for the new millennium. RAND Corporation. https://doi.org/10.7249/RB9546
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, J., & Grammich, C. (2009). Police recruitment and retention in the contemporary urban environment: A national discussion of personnel experiences and promising practices from the front lines. RAND Corporation. https://doi.org/10.7249/RB9546
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe, S. E., Rojek, J., Manjarrez, V. M., Jr., & Rojek, A. (2018). Why does organizational justice matter? Uncertainty management among law enforcement officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 54, 20–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.11.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, B. E., Christensen, R. K., & Isett, K. R. (2013). Motivated to adapt? The role of public service motivation as employees face organizational change. Public Administration Review, 73(5), 738–747. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.12078
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, B. E., & Davis, B. S. (2003). Job satisfaction in the public sector: The role of the work environment. The American Review of Public Administration, 33(1), 70–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074002250254
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, B. E., Hassan, S., Baker, D. B., & Teaford, K. (2022). Work engagement, burnout, and the motivation to serve among law enforcement officers during the COVID-19 pandemic and community protests in the USA. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 17. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paac078
   Google Scholar
• Wright, B. E., Hassan, S., & Christensen, R. K. (2017). Job choice and performance: Revisiting core assumptions about public service motivation. International Public Management Journal, 20(1), 108–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2015.1088493
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, H. H. (2019). Work-life balance: An exploratory analysis of family-friendly policies for reducing turnover intentions among women in US federal law enforcement. International Journal of Public Administration, 42(4), 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2018.1463541
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar