Effect of nitrogen application rate under organic and conventional systems on rice (Oryza sativa L.) growth, grain yield, soil properties, and greenhouse gas emissions

References

• Alpha, J. M., J. Chen, and G. Zhang. 2009. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer forms on growth, photosynthesis, and yield of rice under cadmium stress. Journal of Plant Nutrition 32 (2):306–17. doi: 10.1080/01904160802608635.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azarpour, E., M. Moraditochaee, and H. R. Bozorgi. 2014. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer management on growth analysis of rice cultivars. International Journal of Biosciences 4:35–47. doi:10.12692/ijb/4.5.35-47.
   Google Scholar
• Behera, A. K. 1998. Response of scented rice (Oryza sativa L.) to nitrogen under transplanted condition. Indian Journal of Agronomy 43:64–7.
   Google Scholar
• Berntsen, J., R. Grant, J. E. Olesen, I. S. Kristensen, F. P. Vinther, J. P. Mølgaard, and B. M. Petersen. 2006. Nitrogen cycling inorganic farming systems with rotational grass-clover and arable crops. Soil Use and Management 22 (2):197–208. doi: 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2005.00016.x.
   Google Scholar
• Bijay Singh, Y. S., Singh, M. S. Maskina, O. P. Meelu. 1996. The value of poultry manure for wetland rice grown in rotation with wheat. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 47 (3):243–50. doi: 10.1007/BF01986279.
   Google Scholar
• Chaudhary, S., G. S. Dheri, and B. S. Brar. 2017. Long-term effects of NPK fertilizers and organic manures on carbon stabilization and management index under rice-wheat cropping system. Soil and Tillage Research 166:59–66. doi: 10.1016/j.still.2016.10.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collier, S. M., M. D. Ruark, L. G. Oates, W. E. Jokela, and C. J. Dell. 2014. Measurement of greenhouse gas flux from agricultural soils using static chambers. Journal of Visualized Experiments 90 (90): E 52110. doi: 10.3791/52110.
   Google Scholar
• Counce, P. A. 1987. Asymptotic and parabolic yield and linear nutrient content responses to rice population density. Agronomy Journal 79 (5):864–9. doi: 10.2134/agronj1987.00021962007900050022x.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, J. M., and P. R. Warman. 1997. Effects of three fertility amendments on soil dehydrogenase activity, organic C and pH. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 77 (2):281–3. doi: 10.4141/S96-023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crutchfield, J. D., and J. H. Grove. 2011. A new cadmium reduction device for the microplate determination of nitrate in water, soil, plant tissue, and physiological fluids. Journal of AOAC International 6:1896–905. doi: 10.5740/jaoacint.10-454.
   Google Scholar
• De Ponti, T., B. Rijk, and M. K. van Ittersum. 2012. The crop yield gap between organic and conventional agriculture. Agricultural Systems 108:1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2011.12.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koffi, D., B. B. Vincent, and M. C. Valere. 2016. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on yield and nitrogen use efficiency of four aromatic rice varieties. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture 28:126–35. doi:10.9755/ejfa.2015-05-250.
   Google Scholar
• Dong, W., X. Zhang, H. Wang, X. Dai, X. Sun, W. Qiu, and F. Yang. 2012. Effect of different fertilizer application on the soil fertility of paddy soils in red soil region of southern China. PLoS One 7 (9):e44504. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044504.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong, Z., L. Wu, J. Chai, Y. Zhu, Y. Chen, and Y. Zhu. 2015. Effects of nitrogen application rates on rice grain yield, nitrogen-use efficiency, and water quality in paddy field. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 46 (12):1579–94. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2015.1045595.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubey, L., M. Dubey, and P. Jain. 2015. Role of green manuring organic farming. Plant Archives 15:23–6.
   Google Scholar
• Eller, G., and P. Frenzel. 2001. Changes in activity and community structure of methane-oxidizing bacteria over the growth period of rice. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67 (6):2395–403. doi: 10.1128/AEM.67.6.2395-2403.2001.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• EL-Refaee, I. S., F. A. Srour, M. H. Ibrahiem, and I. A. Sheta. 2015. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and planting method on: Grain yield and quality of rice. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research 93:549–64.
   Google Scholar
• Fan, M., J. Shen, L. Yuan, R. Jiang, X. Chen, W. J. Davies, and F. Zhang. 2012. Improving crop productivity and resource efficiency to ensure food security and environmental quality in China. Journal of Experimental Botany 63 (1):13–24. doi: 10.1093/jxb/err248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruca-Rokosz, R., and P. Koszelnik. 2018. Production pathways for CH4 and CO2 in sediments of two freshwater ecosystems in south-eastern Poland. PLoS One 13 (6):e0199755. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199755.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, J., R. L. McCulley, T. D. Phillips, and D. H. McNear. Jr. 2016. Fungal endophyte and tall fescue cultivar interact to differentially affect bulk and rhizosphere soil processes governing C and N cycling. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 101:165–74. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2016.07.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hadi, A., K. Inubushi, and K. Yagi. 2010. Effect of water management on greenhouse gas emissions and microbial properties of paddy soils in Japan and Indonesia. Paddy and Water Environment 8 (4):319–24. doi: 10.1007/s10333-010-0210-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, R. C., E. Gorham, D. I. Sebacher, K. B. Bartlett, and P. A. Flebbe. 1985. Methane flux from northern peatland. Nature 315 (6021):652–4. doi: 10.1038/315652a0.
   Google Scholar
• Hasegawa, T., Y. Koroda, N. G. Seligman, and T. Horie. 1994. Response of spikelet number to plant nitrogen concentration and dry weight in paddy rice. Agronomy Journal 86 (4):673–6. doi: 10.2134/agronj1994.00021962008600040016x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hay, R. K. M. 1995. Harvest index: A review of its use in plant breeding and crop physiology. Annals of Applied Biology 126 (1):197–216. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.1995.tb05015.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herzog, T. K. A. Baumert, and J. Pershing. 2006. Target: Intensity (An analysis of greenhouse gas intensity targets), 25. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/research/target-intensity (assessed September 10, 2021).
   Google Scholar
• Hou, M., F. Luo, D. Wu, X. Zhang, M. Lou, D. Shen, M. Yan, C. Mao, X. Fan, G. Xu, et al. 2021. OsPIN9, an auxin efflux carrier, is required for the regulation of rice tiller bud outgrowth by ammonium. The New Phytologist 229 (2):935–49. doi: 10.1111/nph.16901.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huang, L., J. Yu, J. Yang, R. Zhang, Y. Bai, C. Sun, and H. Zhuang. 2016. Relationships between yield, quality and nitrogen uptake and utilization of organically grown rice varieties. Pedosphere 26 (1):85–97. doi: 10.1016/S1002-0160(15)60025-X.
   Google Scholar
• IPCC. 2014. Climate change 2013: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of IPCC the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jerkins, D, and J. Ory. 2016. National organic research agenda: Outcomes and recommendations from the 2015 national organic farmer survey and listening sessions. https://ofrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/NORA_2016_final9_28.pdf (accessed May 27, 2020).
   Google Scholar
• Jha, P., K. M. Hati, R. C. Dalal, Y. P. Dang, P. M. Kopittke, and N. W. Menzies. 2020. Soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics in a Vertisol following 50 years of no tillage, crop stubble retention and nitrogen fertilization. Geoderma 358:113996. doi: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.113996.
   Google Scholar
• Jia, D., J. Lu, Y. Sun, S. Song, H. Du, and L. Han. 2016. Effect of different nitrogen fertilizer application strategies on rice growth and yield. Asian Agricultural Research 8:33–9. doi: 10.22004/ag.econ.241299.
   Google Scholar
• Kögel-Knabner, I., W. Amelung, Z. Cao, S. Fiedler, P. Frenzel, R. Jahn, K. Kalbitz, A. Kölbl, and M. Schloter. 2010. Biogeochemistry of paddy soils. Geoderma 157 (1–2):1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.03.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krüger, M., G. Eller, R. Conrad, and P. Frenzel. 2002. Seasonal variation in pathways of CH4 production and in CH4 oxidation in rice fields determined by stable carbon isotopes and specific inhibitors. Global Change Biology 8 (3):265–80. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2486.2002.00476.x.
   Google Scholar
• Ku, H., K. Hayashi, R. Agbisit, and G. Villegas-Pangga. 2017. Effect of rates and sources of nitrogen on rice yield, nitrogen efficiency, and methane emission from irrigated rice cultivation. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 63 (7):1009–22. doi: 10.1080/03650340.2016.1255327.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, M., S. K. Singh, and J. S. Bohra. 2020. Cumulative effect of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients on yield, nutrients uptake and economics by rice–wheat cropping system in indo-gangetic plains of India. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 51 (5):658–74. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2020.1729788.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kupisch, M., A. Stadler, M. Langensiepen, and F. Ewert. 2015. Analysis of spatio-temporal patterns of CO2 and H2O fluxes in relation to crop growth under field conditions. Field Crops Research 176:108–18. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2015.02.011.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, D. K., J. J. Doolittle, and V. N. Owens. 2007. Soil carbon dioxide fluxes in established switchgrass land managed for biomass production. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39 (1):178–86. doi: 10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.07.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, C. F., C. F. Cao, J. P. Wang, Z. B. Zhai, and S. H. Mei. 2009. CH4 and CO2 emissions from paddy soils and assessment of carbon budget in different tillage systems. Journal of Agro-Environment Science 28 (12):2482–8.
   Google Scholar
• Li, J., J. M. Cooper, Z. Lin, Y. Li, X. Yang, and B. Zhao. 2015. Soil microbial community structure and function are significantly affected by long-term organic and mineral fertilization regimes in the North China Plain. Applied Soil Ecology 96:75–87. doi: 10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.07.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, J., Y. C. Wen, X. Li, Y. Li, X. Yang, Z. Lin, Z. Song, J. Cooper, and B. Zhao. 2018. Soil labile organic carbon fractions and soil organic carbon stocks as affected by long-term organic and mineral fertilization regimes in the North China Plain. Soil and Tillage Research 175:281–90. doi: 10.1016/j.still.2017.08.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, X., W. Yan, H. Agrama, L. Jia, A. Jackson, K. Moldenhauer, K. Yeater, A. McClung, and D. Wu. 2012. Unraveling the complex trait of harvest index with association mapping in rice (Oryza sativa L.). PLoS One 7 (1):e29350. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029350.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li, X., F. Dou, K. B. Watkins, S. Wang, K. Chen, X. Zhou, A. McClung, J. O. Storlien, and F. M. Hons. 2020. Seeding rate effects on organic rice growth, yield, and economic returns. Agronomy Journal 112 (5):4104–19. doi: 10.1002/agj2.20304.
   Google Scholar
• Liu, L., C. Li, S. Zhu, Y. Xu, H. Li, X. Zheng, and R. Shi. 2020. Combined application of organic and inorganic nitrogen fertilizers affects soil prokaryotic communities compositions. Agronomy 10 (1):132. doi: 10.3390/agronomy10010132.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lundquist, E. J., K. M. Scow, L. E. Jackson, S. L. Uesugi, and C. R. Johnson. 1999. Rapid response of soil microbial communities from conventional, low input, and organic farming systems to a wet/dry cycle. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 31 (12):1661–75. doi: 10.1016/S0038-0717(99)00080-2.
   Google Scholar
• Luo, L., S. Pan, X. Liu, H. Wang, and G. Xu. 2017. Nitrogen deficiency inhibits cell division-determined elongation, but not initiation, of rice tiller buds. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 64 (3–4):1–40. doi: 10.1080/07929978.2016.1275367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma, Y. Q., C. C. Qian, D. P. Sun, L. P. Deng, G. Q. Huang, and W. B. Lu. 2016. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer application on greenhouse gas emissions from soil in paddy field. Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering 32:128–34. doi:10.11975/j.issn.1002-6819.2016.z2.017.
   Google Scholar
• Mae, T. 1997. Physiological nitrogen efficiency in rice: Nitrogen utilization, photosynthesis, and yield potential. Plant and Soil 196 (2):201–10. doi: 10.1023/A:1004293706242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandana, T., G. Akif, A. Ebrahim, and N. Z. Azin. 2014. Effect of nitrogen on rice yield, yield components and quality parameters. African Journal of Biotechnology 13:91–105.
   Google Scholar
• Manzoor, Z., L. Ali, S. Akhtar, M. Ijaz, M. Akhter, M. K. Bhati, M. Rizwan, and W. Hussain. 2015. Effect of different nitrogen levels on yield and yield components of fine grain advance rice line PK 8677-18-7-1-14. Pakistan Journal of Science 67:235–8.
   Google Scholar
• Masunga, R. H., V. N. Uzokwe, P. D. Mlay, I. Odeh, A. Singh, D. Buchan, and S. D. Neve. 2016. Nitrogen mineralization dynamics of different valuable organic amendments commonly used in agriculture. Applied Soil Ecology 101:185–93. doi: 10.1016/j.apsoil.2016.01.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsumoto, H., and K. Tamura. 1981. Respiratory stress in cucumber roots treated with ammonium or nitrate nitrogen. Plant and Soil 60 (2):195–204. doi: 10.1007/BF02374104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minamikawa, K., and N. Sakai. 2006. The practical use of water management based on soil redox potential for decreasing methane emission from a paddy 32ifield in Japan. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 116 (3–4):181–8. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2006.02.006.
   Google Scholar
• Moe, K., K. W. Mg, K. K. Win, and T. Yamakawa. 2017. Effects of combined application of inorganic fertilizer and organic manures on nitrogen use and recovery efficiencies of hybrid rice. American Journal of Plant Sciences 08 (05):1043–64. doi: 10.4236/ajps.2017.8506.
   Google Scholar
• Moe, K., S. M. Moh, A. Z. Htwe, Y. Kajihara, and T. Yamakawa. 2019. Effects of integrated organic and inorganic fertilizers on yield and growth parameters of rice varieties. Rice Science 26 (5):309–18. doi: 10.1016/j.rsci.2019.08.005.
   Google Scholar
• Mosier, A. R., A. D. Halvorson, C. A. Reule, and X. J. Liu. 2006. Net global warming potential and greenhouse gas intensity in irrigated cropping systems in Northeastern Colorado. Journal of Environmental Quality 35 (4):1584–98. doi: 10.2134/jeq2005.0232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myint, A. K., T. Yamakawa, T. Zenmyo, H. T. B. Thao, and P. S. Sarr. 2011. Effects of organic-manure application on growth, grain yield, and nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium recoveries of rice variety Manawthuka in paddy soils of differing fertility. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 42 (4):457–74. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2011.542223.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naser, H. M., O. Nagata, S. Tamura, and R. Hatano. 2007. Methane emissions from five paddy fields with different amounts of rice straw application in central Hokkaido, Japan. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 53 (1):95–101. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-0765.2007.00105.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, J. C., A. R. Townsend, G. Gleixner, S. J. Lehman, J. Turnbull, and W. D. Bowman. 2002. Variable effects of nitrogen additions on the stability and turnover of soil carbon. Nature 419 (6910):915–7. doi: 10.1038/nature01136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng, S. J. Huang, J. E. Sheehy, R. C. Laza, R. M. Visperas, X. Zhong, G. S. Centeno, G. S. Khush, and K. G. Cassman. 2004. Rice yield decline with higher night temperature from global warming. In Rice integrated crop management: Towards a rice check system in the Philippines, eds. E. D. Redona, A. P. Castro, G. P. Llanto, 46–56. Nueva Ecija, Philippines: Phil Rice.
   Google Scholar
• Peng, W., Y. Zeng, Q. Shi, and S. Huang. 2017. Responses of rice yield and the fate of fertilizer nitrogen to soil organic carbon. Plant, Soil and Environment 63:416–21. doi: 10.17221/389/2017-PSE.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, R. P., and T. J. Fahey. 2007. Fertilization effects on fine root biomass, rhizosphere microbes and respiratory fluxes in hard wood forest soils. The New Phytologist 176 (3):655–64. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02204.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pramanik, K., and A. K. Bera. 2013. Effect of seedling age and nitrogen on growth, chlorophyll content, yield and economics of hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.). International Journal of Plant Production 4 (S):3489–99.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, C. W., R. J. Norman, T. J. Siebenmorgen, B. C. Grigg, J. T. Hardke, K. R. Brye, and E. E. Gbur. 2016. Rough rice and milling yields as affected by nitrogen, harvest moisture, and cultivar. Agronomy Journal 108 (2):813–21. doi: 10.2134/agronj2015.0254.
   Google Scholar
• Saichuk, J. K. S. B. Blanche, E. Eskew, D. L. Harrell, D. E. Growth, C. Hollier, N. Hummel, S. D. Linscombe, C. Rush, X. Sha, et al. 2008. Rice varieties and management tips 2009. Baton Rouge, LA: L.S.U. Agricultural Center.
   Google Scholar
• Santoro, A. E., C. Buchwald, M. R. Mcilvin, and K. L. Casciotti. 2011. Isotopic signature of N2O produced by marine ammonia-oxidizing archaea. Science 333 (6047):1282–5. doi: 10.1126/science.1208239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelp, B. J., D. C. Taylor, and L. M. Nelson. 1991. Carbon and nitrogen partitioning in young nodulated pea (wild type and nitrate reductase deficient mutant) plants exposed to NO3− or NH4+. Canadian Journal of Botany 69 (8):1780–6. doi: 10.1139/b91-226.
   Google Scholar
• Sun, B. F., H. Zhao, Y. Z. Lu, F. Lu, and X. K. Wang. 2016. The effects of nitrogen fertilizer application on methane and nitrous oxide emission/uptake in Chinese croplands. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 15 (2):440–50. doi: 10.1016/S2095-3119(15)61063-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, J., J. J. Wang, Z. Y. Li, S. N. Wang, and Y. K. Qu. 2018. Effects of irrigation regime and nitrogen fertilizer management on CH4, N2O and CO2 emissions from saline–alkaline paddy fields in northeast China. Sustainability 10 (2):475. doi: 10.3390/su10020475.
   Google Scholar
• Tejada, M., M. T. Hernandez, and C. Garcia. 2009. Soil restoration using composted plant residues: Effects on soil properties. Soil and Tillage Research 102 (1):109–17. doi: 10.1016/j.still.2008.08.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toriyama, K., T. Amino, and K. Kobayashi. 2020. Contribution of fallow weed incorporation to nitrogen supplying capacity of paddy soil under organic farming. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 66 (1):133–43. doi: 10.1080/00380768.2020.1716389.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• USDA-NASS. 2017. Certified organic survey 2016 summary report (released on September 20, 2017). National agriculture statistics service. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture. https://downloads.usda.library.cornell.edu/usda-esmis/files/zg64tk92g/70795b52w/4m90dz33q/OrganicProduction-09-20-2017_correction.pdf. (accessed July 16, 2020).
   Google Scholar
• Wang, B., Y. E. Li, Y. F. Wan, X. B. Qin, Q. Z. Gao, S. Liu, and J. L. Li. 2016. Modifying nitrogen fertilizer practices can reduce greenhouse gas emissions from a Chinese double rice cropping system. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 215:100–9. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2015.09.008.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Y. Y., B. Zhu, Y. Shi, and C. S. Hu. 2008. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on upland rice based on pot experiments. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 39 (11–12):1733–49. doi: 10.1080/00103620802073743.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, X., and F. E. Below. 1996. Cytokinins in enhances growth and tillering of wheat induced by mixed nitrogen source. Crop Science 36 (1):121–6. doi: 10.2135/cropsci1996.0011183X003600010022x.
   Google Scholar
• Wardle, D. A. 1992. A comparative assessment of factors, which influence microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen levels in soils. Biological Reviews 67 (3):321–58. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1992.tb00728.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, G., X. Liu, Q. Wang, R. Xiong, and Y. Hang. 2017. Effects of screenhouse cultivation and organic materials incorporation on global warming potential in rice fields. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 24 (7):6581–91. doi: 10.1007/s11356-017-8397-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, Y., H. Tang, X. Xiao, W. Li, C. Li, G. Sun, and K. Cheng. 2018. Effects of long-term fertilization management practices on soil microbial carbon and microbial biomass in paddy soil at various stages of rice growth. Rev Bras Cienc Solo 42:e0170111. doi: 10.1590/18069657rbcs20170111.
   Google Scholar
• Yang, B., Z. Q. Xiong, J. Y. Wang, X. Xu, Q. W. Huang, and Q. R. Shen. 2015. Mitigating net global warming potential and greenhouse gas intensities by substituting chemical nitrogen fertilizers with organic fertilization strategies in rice–wheat annual rotation systems in China: A 3-year field experiment. Ecological Engineering 81:289–97. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.04.071.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoseftabar, S. 2013. Effect of nitrogen management on panicle structure and yield in rice (Oryza sativa L.). International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences 5:1224–7.
   Google Scholar
• Yoshida, H., T. Horie, and T. Shiraiwa. 2006. A model explaining genotypic and environmental variation of rice spikelet number per unit area measured by cross-locational experiments in Asia. Field Crops Research 97 (2–3):337–43. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2005.11.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, Q., X. Hu, J. Ma, J. Ye, W. Sun, Q. Wang, and H. Lin. 2020. Effects of long-term organic material applications on soil carbon and nitrogen fractions in paddy fields. Soil and Tillage Research 196:104483. doi: 10.1016/j.still.2019.104483.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X. X., S. Yin, Y. S. Li, H. L. Zhuang, C. S. Li, and C. J. Liu. 2014. Comparison of greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddy fields under different nitrogen fertilization loads in Chongming Island, Eastern China. The Science of the Total Environment 472:381–8. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, H., Z. Mo, Q. Lin, S. Pan, M. Duan, H. Tian, S. Wang, and X. Tang. 2020. Relationships between grain yield and agronomic traits of rice in southern China. Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 80 (1):72–9. doi: 10.4067/S0718-58392020000100072.
   Google Scholar
• Zhong, Y., X. Wang, J. Yang, X. Zhao, and X. Ye. 2016. Exploring a suitable nitrogen fertilizer rate to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ensure rice yields in paddy fields. The Science of the Total Environment 565:420–6. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.04.167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou, J. W., Y. Huang, Y. Lu, X. Zheng, and Y. Wang. 2005. Direct emission factor for N2O from rice-winter wheat rotation systems in southeast China. Atmospheric Environment 39 (26):4755–65. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.04.028.
   Google Scholar