The Changing Moral Environment—A Three-Wave Study Testing Four Moral Theories and the Fear of COVID-19 in Predicting Compliance with Behavioral Guidelines on COVID-19, Moralization Toward Non-Compliance, and Vaccination

References

• Ahorsu, D. K., Lin, C. Y., Imani, V., Saffari, M., Griffiths, M. D., & Pakpour, A. H. (2022). The Fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20(3), 1537–1545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartels, D. M., & Pizarro, D. A. (2011). The mismeasure of morals: Antisocial personality traits predict utilitarian responses to moral dilemmas. Cognition, 121(1), 154–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.05.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bor, A., Jørgensen, F., Lindholt, M. F., & Petersen, M. B. (2023). Moralizing the COVID-19 pandemic: Self-interest predicts moral condemnation of other’s compliance, distancing, and vaccination. Political Psychology, 44, 257–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12835
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, E. Y. (2021). Moral foundations underlying behavioral compliance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Personality and Individual Differences, 171, 110463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110463
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen, J. F., & Gomila, A. (2012). Moral dilemmas in cognitive neuroscience of moral decision-making: A principled review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(4), 1249–1264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christner, N., Sticker, R. M., Söldner, L., Mammen, M., & Paulus, M. (2020). Prevention for oneself or others? Psychological and social factors that explain social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(6), 1342–1353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105320980793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curry, O. S., Jones Chesters, M., & Van Lissa, C. J. (2019). Mapping morality with a compass: Testing the theory of ‘morality-as-cooperation’ with a new questionnaire. Journal of Research in Personality, 78, 106–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.10.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Corte, K., Cairns, J., & Grieve, R. (2021). Stated versus revealed preferences: An approach to reduce bias. Health Economics, 30(5), 1095–1123. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4246
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeScioli, P., & Kurzban, R. (2013). A solution to the mysteries of morality. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 477–496. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029065
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeScioli, P., & Kurzban, R. (2018). Morality is for choosing sides. In K. Gray & J. Graham (Eds.), Atlas of moral psychology (pp. 177–185). Guildford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fleischmann, A., Lammers, J., Conway, P., & Galinsky, A. D. (2019). Paradoxical effects of power on moral thinking: Why power both increases and decreases deontological and utilitarian moral decisions. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(1), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617744022
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frackowiak, M., Russell, P. S., Rusconi, P., Fasoli, F., & Cohen-Chen, S. (2023). Political orientation, trust and discriminatory beliefs during the COVID-19 pandemic: Longitudinal evidence from the United Kingdom. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 62(4), 1897–1924. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12662
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Francis, K., & McNabb, C. B. (2020). Moral decision-making during COVID-19: Moral judgments, moralisation, and everyday behaviour [Preprint]. Open Science Framework. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/jvfds
   Google Scholar
• Frowde, R., Dove, E. S., & Laurie, G. T. (2020). Fail to prepare and you prepare to fail: The human rights consequences of the UK government’s inaction during the COVID-19 pandemic. Asian Bioethics Review, 12(4), 459–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41649-020-00151-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gerbaudo, P. (2020). The pandemic crowd. Journal of International Affairs, 73(2), 61–76.
   Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S., Motyl, M., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S. P., & Ditto, P. H. (2013). Chapter two – Moral foundations theory: The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism. In P. Devine & A. Plant (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 47, pp. 55–130). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-7.00002-4
   Google Scholar
• Graham, J., Nosek, B. A., Haidt, J., Iyer, R., Koleva, S., & Ditto, P. H. (2011). Mapping the moral domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 366–385. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021847
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haischer, M. H., Beilfuss, R., Hart, M. R., Opielinski, L., Wrucke, D., Zirgaitis, G., Uhrich, T. D., & Hunter, S. K. (2020). Who is wearing a mask? Gender-, age-, and location-related differences during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLOS One, 15(10), e0240785. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240785
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern, L. W. (2020). The politicization of COVID-19. The American Journal of Nursing, 120(11), 19–20. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000721912.74581.d7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Han, Q., Zheng, B., Cristea, M., Agostini, M., Bélanger, J. J., Gützkow, B., Kreienkamp, J., Leander, N. P., & PsyCorona Collaboration (2023). Trust in government regarding COVID-19 and its associations with preventive health behaviour and prosocial behaviour during the pandemic: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Psychological Medicine, 53(1), 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721001306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henrich, J., Heine, S., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Introducing the Short Dark Triad (SD3): A brief measure of dark personality traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahane, G., Everett, J. A. C., Earp, B. D., Caviola, L., Faber, N. S., Crockett, M. J., & Savulescu, J. (2018). Beyond sacrificial harm: A two-dimensional model of utilitarian psychology. Psychological Review, 125(2), 131–164. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr, J., Panagopoulos, C., & van der Linden, S. (2021). Political polarization on COVID-19 pandemic response in the United States. Personality and Individual Differences, 179, 110892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kneer, M., & Hannikainen, I. R. (2022). Trolleys, triage and Covid-19: The role of psychological realism in sacrificial dilemmas. Cognition & Emotion, 36(1), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2021.1964940
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenigs, M., Young, L., Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Cushman, F., Hauser, M., & Damasio, A. (2007). Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgements. Nature, 446(7138), 908–911. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05631
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurzban, R. (2010). Why everyone (else) is a hypocrite: Evolution and the modular mind. Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Laakasuo, M., Repo, M., Drosinou, M., Berg, A., Kunnari, A., Koverola, M., & Sundvall, J. (2021). The dark path to eternal life: Machiavellianism predicts approval of mind upload technology. Personality and Individual Differences, 177, 110731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110731
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laakasuo, M., & Sundvall, J. (2016). Are utilitarian/deontological preferences unidimensional? Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1228. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laakasuo, M., Köbis, N., Palomäki, J., & Jokela, M. (2018). Money for microbes—Pathogen avoidance and out‐group helping behaviour. International Journal of Psychology, 53(S1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12416
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laakasuo, M., Sundvall, J., & Drosinou, M. (2017). Individual differences in moral disgust do not predict utilitarian judgments, sexual and pathogen disgust do. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 45526. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep45526
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Međedović, J., & Petrović, B. (2015). The dark tetrad. Journal of Individual Differences, 36(4), 228–236. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000179
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Motta, M., Stecula, D., & Farhart, C. (2020). How right-leaning media coverage of COVID-19 facilitated the spread of misinformation in the early stages of the pandemic in the U.S. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423920000396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, K., Williamson, H., Sargeant, E., & McCarthy, M. (2020). Why people comply with COVID-19 social distancing restrictions: Self-interest or duty? Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 53(4), 477–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004865820954484
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Connell, K., Berluti, K., Rhoads, S. A., & Marsh, A. A. (2021). Reduced social distancing early in the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with antisocial behaviors in an online United States sample. PLOS One, 16(1), e0244974. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244974
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olivera-La Rosa, A., Chuquichambi, E. G., & Ingram, G. P. D. (2020). Keep your (social) distance: Pathogen concerns and social perception in the time of COVID-19. Personality and Individual Differences, 166, 110200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paruzel-Czachura, M., & Farny, Z. (2023). Psychopathic traits and utilitarian moral judgment revisited. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 1461672231169105. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231169105
   Google Scholar
• Patil, I., Cogoni, C., Zangrando, N., Chittaro, L., & Silani, G. (2014). Affective basis of judgment-behavior discrepancy in virtual experiences of moral dilemmas. Social Neuroscience, 9(1), 94–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2013.870091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfattheicher, S., Nockur, L., Böhm, R., Sassenrath, C., & Petersen, M. B. (2020). The emotional path to action: Empathy promotes physical distancing and wearing of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic [Preprint]. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/y2cg5
   Google Scholar
• Prosser, A. M. B., Judge, M., Bolderdijk, J. W., Blackwood, L., & Kurz, T. (2020). Distancers’ and ‘non‐distancers’? The potential social psychological impact of moralizing COVID‐19 mitigating practices on sustained behaviour change. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 59(3), 653–662. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.1239
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, D. L., & Tomiyama, A. J. (2022). Jab my arm, not my morality: Perceived moral reproach as a barrier to COVID-19 vaccine uptake. Social Science & Medicine, 294, 114699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozin, P. (1999). The process of moralization. Psychological Science, 10(3), 218–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00139
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell, P. S., Frackowiak, M., Cohen-Chen, S., Rusconi, P., & Fasoli, F. (2023). Induced gratitude and hope, and experienced fear, but not experienced disgust, facilitate COVID-19 prevention. Cognition & Emotion, 37(2), 196–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2022.2157377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanka, M. S., & Menebo, M. M. (2022). When and how trust in government leads to compliance with COVID-19 precautionary measures. Journal of Business Research, 139, 1275–1283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.10.036
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson, C., Wakefield, J. R. H., Felsner, I., Drury, J., & Costa, S. (2021). Collectively coping with coronavirus: Local community identification predicts giving support and lockdown adherence during the COVID-19 pandemic. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 60(4), 1403–1418. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12457
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroebe, W., vanDellen, M. R., Abakoumkin, G., Lemay, E. P., Schiavone, W. M., Agostini, M., Bélanger, J. J., Gützkow, B., Kreienkamp, J., Reitsema, A. M., Abdul Khaiyom, J. H., Ahmedi, V., Akkas, H., Almenara, C. A., Atta, M., Bagci, S. C., Basel, S., Berisha Kida, E., Bernardo, A. B. I., … Leander, N. P. (2021). Politicization of COVID-19 health-protective behaviors in the United States: Longitudinal and cross-national evidence. PLOS One, 16(10), e0256740. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256740
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vacchini, S., Fasoli, F., & Volpato, C. (2021). “You cannot get into my taxi!” Perceptions of a COVID-19-based rejection episode reported in the newspapers. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 40(5–6), 677–689. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X211043096
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Bavel, J. J., Cichocka, A., Capraro, V., Sjåstad, H., Nezlek, J. B., Pavlović, T., Alfano, M., Gelfand, M. J., Azevedo, F., Birtel, M. D., Cislak, A., Lockwood, P. L., Ross, R. M., Abts, K., Agadullina, E., Aruta, J. J. B., Besharati, S. N., Bor, A., Choma, B. L., … Boggio, P. S. (2022). National identity predicts public health support during a global pandemic. Nature Communications, 13(1), 517. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-27668-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vartanova, I., Eriksson, K., Kirgil, Z. M., & Strimling, P. (2021). The advent of the COVID-19 epidemic did not affect Americans’ endorsement of moral foundations. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 647858. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647858
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (2020). Advice for the public: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19). https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public
   Google Scholar
• Zhou, H., Cárdenas, D., & Reynolds, K. J. (2023). Norms and COVID‐19 health behaviours: A longitudinal investigation of group factors. European Journal of Social Psychology, 53(4), 720–731. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2932
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar