- Gilmore , G. E. , Edwards , L. , Mitchell , M. , Davidoff , L. , McClelland , K. , Varikas , E. , Manicom , L. , Eales , K. , Wells , J. , Walker , C. , Gaitskell , D. , Ayers , E. L. , McMillen , N. and Litwack , L. 1996 . Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920 Chapel Hill Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow (New York, 1999), esp. ch. 6 North Carolina Historical Review 68 (July 1991), 237–60; Gender and History: Retrospect and Prospect (Oxford, 1999); Posel D. Journal of Historical Sociology, 8, 3 (1995), 223–256; Journal of African History, 33 (1992), 441–465; We Now Demand The History of Women's Resistance to Pass Laws in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1993); Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (Cape Town and London, 1990); The Promise of the New South: Life after Reconstruction (New York and Oxford, 1992), 140; Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (Urbana and Chicago, 1990), 14–19;
- Fredrickson , G. M. 1995 . Black Liberation: A Comparative History of Black Ideologies in the United States and South Africa Oxford and New York
- Cell , J. 1983 . The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South Cambridge Segregation, according to Cell, involved aset of practices which grew out of the novel situation in urban centres in which the ‘races’ were more likely to come into contact—on public transportation, residential areas, places of entertainment and so on—than they were under slavery or in the post-bellum rural South. In both countries, Cell argues, these changes occurred in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: (S. Dubow, Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919–36 (London, 1989)
- 1996 . 1134 George Fredrikson's Black Liberation has been criticised for neglecting to make these connections and to portray the overall milieu in which urban politics evolved: see F. Cooper, ‘Race, Ideology, and the Perils of Comparative History’, American Historical Review, 101, 4
- Fredrickson , Rabinowitz , H. , Meier , A. , Rudwick , E. , Meier , A. and Rudwick , E. Black Liberation Along the Color Line: Explorations in the Black Experience (Urbana, 1976), 267–89;Litwack, Trouble in Mind, ch. 8 Race Relations in the Urban South 1865–1890 (Athens, Ga, 1978), 333–8;
- Saunders , C. and Kirk , J. F. 1920 . Much has been made of the fears of African proletarianisation and the growth of political militancy with respect to the consolidation of segregation in South Africa in the s: Dubow, Racial Segregation, esp. 69–73. Nevertheless, clearly, anxieties about the growth of urban African communities in the earlier period fed into contemporary segregationist discourses: see Making a Voice: African Resistance to Segregation in South Africa (Colorado and Oxford, 1998);Wells, We Now Demand Studies in the History of Cape Town, vol. 1 (Cape Town, 1984), 153–164;
- Hunter , T. ‘To Joy My Freedom’: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass. and London, date???), 76
- The most systematic comparison of the two systems' and ideologies' segregation is to be found in Cell, Highest Stage; see also Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 94
- Bozzoli , B. 1983 . ‘Marxism, Feminism and South African Studies’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 9 : 139 – 71 . (S. Marks, ‘Patriotism, Patriarchy and Purity: Natal and the Politics of Zulu Ethnic Consciousness’, in L. Vail, ed., The creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (London, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1989), 226–7
- Gilmore . Gender and Jim Crow 225
- Bonner , P. 1917–1920 . Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa: African Class Formation, Culture and Consciousness, 1870–1930 Edited by: Marks , S. and Rathbone , R. 270 – 313 . New York On the ‘stunted’ nature of the African petty bourgeoisie, see, ‘The Transvaal Native Congress,: The Radicalisation of the Black Petty Bourgeoisie on the Rand’, in, eds, (1982, It should be noted that the existence of a qualified franchise in the Cape meant that the potential for these forms of female brokerage around questions of political participation certainly existed in one part of South Africa: the Cape. This factor, as well as the fact that most urban black women in the western Cape were the ‘coloured’ descendents of slaves and slave unions with other indigenes whose menfolk enjoyed qualified access to the franchise, represents an important similarity with the case in the Southern United States. The comparison in this article, however, is between the United States South and South Africa with the exception of the western Cape
- Jones , J. 1995 . Labour of Love, Labour of Sorrow: Black Women, Work and Family from Slavery to the Present 3 – 5 . New York
- Wells . We Now Demand 9
- 1974 . 425 – 56 . In the South African case, this would ideally be envisaged by the premier industry, gold mining, to take place in the rural reserves where women's agricultural and household labour sustained African families. This in turn supplied a rationale for ‘bachelor’ wages for African migrant workers and for the paucity of urban amenities for African families: see H. Wolpe, ‘Capitalism and Cheap Labour Power: From Segregation to Apartheid’, Economy and Society, 1, 4 (It should be noted that much recent research has emphasised the extent to which many workers and their families valued migrant labour, precisely because it offered a means of sustaining rural households through migrant's wages and thereby of delaying or holding off full proletarianisation
- Wells . We Now Demand 9
- Gaitskell , D. , Kimble , J. , Machonachie , M. and Unterhalter , E. 1983 . 87 ‘Class, Race and Gender: Domestic Workers in South Africa’, Review of African Political Economy, 27/28
- Gaitskell . et al, ‘Class, Race and Gender’. Conversely, in the USA, a range of new urban occupations gendered as ‘women's work’, such as work in cotton mills, were defined out of the realm of ‘black women's work' by virture of their alleged lack of the requisite skills, comportment and capabilities
- 1989 . To ‘Joy My Freedom. Hunter shows how tuberculosis became a medium of ‘framing’ tensions in labour and race relations and how African American women bore the brunt of the racist assumptions of the tuberculosis discourse: see Hunter, On South Africa's tuberculosis discourse, see R.M. Packard, While Plague, Black Labor: Tuberculosis and the Political Economy of Health and Disease in South Africa (Pietermaritzburg and London, Other studies explore the stigmatisation of African women as carriers of venereal disease and their representation in official and popular discourse as morally depraved, lascivious whores: See K. Eales, ‘Popular Representations of Black Women on the Rand and their Impact on the Development of Influx Controls, 1924–1937’ (Paper, History Workshop Conference, University of the Witwatersrand, 6–10 Feb. 1990)
- Gray White , D. 1998 . Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves 1894–1994 70 New York
- Clark Hine , D. 1989 . Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West: Preliminary Thoughts on the Culture of Dissemblance . Signs , 14 ( 4 ) : 272
- Gaitskell , D. 1912–1940 . ‘“Wailing for Purity”: Prayer Unions, African Mothers and Adolescent Daughters,’, in Marks and Rathbone, Industrialisation and Social Change, 243;D. Gaitskell, ‘Housewives, Maids or Mothers: Some Contradictions of Domesticity for Christian Women in Johannesburg, 1903–39’, Journal of African History, 24 (1983), 249;Marks, ‘Patriotism, Patriarchy’, 228;D. Goodhew, ‘Working Class Respectability: The Example of the Western Areas of Johannesburg, 1930–55’, Journal of African History, 41 (2000), 221–40
- Jones . Labour of Love 73;Rabinowitz, Race Relations, 21
- Marks , C. 1989 . Farewell—We ‘re Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration 34 Bloomington and Indianapolis
- Vann Woodward , C. 1951 . Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 Baton Rouge (Marks, Farewell, 55–9;Ayers, Promise of the New South, ch. 4
- Blassingame , J. W. 1865–1880 . ‘Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia,’, Journal of Social History, 6, 4 (Summer 1973), 463
- Marks . Farewell 59
- Litwack . Trouble in Mind 157–60;L.W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1950 (Urbana and Chicago, 1993)
- Grossman , J. 1989 . Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration Chicago
- Ibid., 19
- Jones . Labor of Love 108–9, 111
- Blassingame . ‘Before the Ghetto’, 463
- Reif , J. L. , Dahlin , M. R. and Scott Smith , D. 1983 . ‘Rural Push and Urban Pull: Work and Family Experiences of Older Black Women in Southern Cities’ . Journal of Social History , 16 (40;Jones, Labor of Love, 114
- Rei . et al, ‘Rural Push and Urban Pull’, 141
- Ayers . Promise of the New South 152
- Ibid, 120–1;D. Letwin, ‘Interracial Unionism, Gender and “Social Equality” in the Alabama Coalfields, 1878–1908’, Journal of Southern History, 61, 3 (1995), 543–6
- Ayers . Promise of the New South 68
- Jones . Labor of Love 98
- Kirby , T. 1987 . Rural Worlds Lost: The American South 1920–1960 169 – 70 . Baton Rouge (as cited in S.A. Mann, ‘Slavery, Sharecropping and Sexual Inequality’, Signs, 14, 4 (1989), 774–98
- Hines . ‘Rape and the Inner Lives’, 913
- Ayers . Promise of the New South 69
- Jones . Labor of Love 127
- Bonner , P. , Delius , P. and Posel , D. 1993 . “ ‘The Shaping of Apartheid: Contradiction, Control and Popular Struggle’ ” . In Apartheid's Genesis 1935–1962 Edited by: Bonner , P. , Delius , P. and Posel , D. Johannesburg in, eds
- Beinart , W. 1994 . Twentieth Century South Africa 15 Oxford and New York
- Ibid., 13–14. White undercapitalisation, their relative lack of farming skills, and aversion to using family labour and low population densities also help account for the African hold on the land
- Packard . White Plague 33
- The Act sought to prevent Africans from buying land in areas designated as white, and disallow residence on farms unless tenants provided a minimum of 90 days' annual labour to the landowner
- Bundy , C. 1979 . The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry London See (T. Keegan, ‘The Sharecropping Economy, African Class Formation and the Natives Land Act of 1913’, in Marks and Rathbone, Industrialisation and Social Change, 195–211
- Wells . We Now Demand 23
- Simons , H. J. 1968 . African Women: Their Legal Status in South Africa London (on the effect of ‘native laws’ on African women
- Wells . We Now Demand 23
- Ibid, 24
- Bozzoli , B. , ed. 1912–1930 . Ibid. 23. See also J. Wells, ‘“The Day the Town Stood Still”: Women in Resistance in Potchefstroom,’, in, ed., Town and Countryside in the Transvaal (Johannesburg, 1983), 269–307
- Eales . ‘Gender Polities’, 51
- Delius , P. , Marks , S. and Atmore , A. 1840–80 . Economy and Society in Pre-Induslrial South Africa London eds, (1980;P. Harries, ‘Kinship, Ideology and the Nature of Pre-Colonial Labour Migration: Labour Migration from the Delagoa Bay Hinterland to South Africa up to 1895’, in Marks and Rathbone, Industrialisation and Social Change, 142–66
- Bozzoli and Berger , I. 1994 . African Historical Essays in Honor of Jan Vansina Edited by: Harms , R. W. , Miller , J. C. , Newbury , D. S. and Wagner , M. D. 126 – 7 . Atlanta ‘“Beasts of Burden” Revisited: Interpretations of Women and Gender in South African Societies’, in, eds
- Delius , P. 1996 . A Lion amongst the Cattle: Reconstruction and Resistance in the Northern Transvaal 23 NH, Johannesburg and Oxford : Portsmouth .
- Simons . African Women 202f;Marks, ‘Patriotism, Patriarchy’, 73–4
- Guy , J. ‘The Destruction and Reconstruction of Zulu Society’, in Marks and Rathbone, Industrialisation and Social Change, 167–94;C. Walker, ‘Gender and the Development of the Migrant Labour System, c.1850–1930’, in Walker, Women and Gender, 168–96;P. Bonner, ‘“Desirable or Undesirable Basotho Women?”: Liquor, Prostitution and the Migration of Basotho Women to the Rand, 1920–1945’, in Walker, Women and Gender, 221–50
- Allman , J. 1996 . Journal of African History , 37 : 195 – 214 . ‘Gender chaos’ is Jean Allman's term to describe the disruption of gender relations and shifting power relationships consequent on the intrusion of a cash economy and trade in colonial Asante: see, ‘Rounding Up Spinsters: Gender Chaos and Unmarried Women in Colonial Asante’
- Bonner . ‘Desirable or Undesirable Women’, 229
- Ibid, 234–41
- Walker . ‘Gender and the Migrant Labour System’, 191–2
- Gaitskell . ‘Female Mission Initiatives’, 109
- Walker . ‘Gender and the Migrant Labour System’, 185–95
- Jones , J. 1998 . American Work: Four Centuries of Black and White Labor 223 – 4 . New York and London
- Ibid., 244
- Ibid, 311
- Grossman . Land of Hope 30;J. Wiener, Social Origins of the New South: Alabama, 1860–1885 (Baton Rouge, 1978);G.B. Tindall, The Emergence of the New South, 1913–1945 (Baton Rouge, 1967)
- Rabinowitz . Race Relations ch. 4;Litwack, Trouble in Mind, 142–3
- Jones . Labor of Love 124;W.E.B. du Bois, ed., The Negro Artisan’, AUS, 7 (1902), 116–77, 195
- Hunter . To ‘Joy My Freedom 62–3
- Jones . Labor of Love 124–6
- Ibid., 128;Hunter, To ‘Joy My Freedom, 50–52;McMillen, Dark Journey, 162–3
- Jones . Labor of Love 127
- Janiewski , D. E. 1985 . Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender and Class in a New South Community Philadelphia (R R. Korstad, ‘“Daybreak of Freedom: Tobacco Workers and the CIO in Winston Salem, North Carolina’, 1943–1950’ (PhD dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1987)
- Jones . American Work 315;Jones, Labor of Love, 136–42
- Hunter . To ‘Joy My Freedom 112–13
- Scully , P. 1997 . Liberating the Family? Gender and British Slave Emancipation in the Rural Western Cape, South Africa, 1823–1853 93 – 7 . Portsmouth, NH, Oxford and Cape Town The following section deals only with these broad patterns. It does not look at domestic service and laundry work in the western Cape, originally performed by imported slaves and thereafter by ‘coloured’ freedwomen and white women to a lesser extent: see (V. Bickford-Smith, Ethnic Pride and Racial Prejudice in Victorian Cape Town (Cambridge, 1995), 185
- Gaitskell . et al, ‘Domestic Workers’, 98–9;J. Cock, ‘Domestic Service and Education for Domesticity: The Incorporation of Xhosa Women into Colonial Society’, in Walker, Women and Gender, 76–96;Kirk, Making a Voice, 182–84
- Delius , P. and Trapido , S. ‘Inboekselings and Oorlams: The Creation and Transformation of a Servile Class’, in Bozzoli, Town and Countryside, 53–88
- Wells . We Now Demand 26;Gaitskell et al, ‘Class, Race and Gender’, 98
- Gaitskell . et al, ‘Class, Race and Gender’, 99
- Wells . We Now Demand 26
- Gaitskell . et al, ‘Class, Race and Gender’, 99
- la Huasse , P. 1902–16 . Liquor and Labor in South Africa Edited by: Crush , J. and Ambler , C. 49 Athens, Ohio ‘Drink and Cultural Innovation: The Origins of the Beerhall in South Africa,’, in, eds, (1992
- Atkins , K. E. 1993 . The Moon is Dead Give Us Our Money The Cultural Origins of an African Work Ethic, Natal, South Africa, 1843–1900 64 – 5 . Portsmouth, NH and London (112–14
- Trollope , A. 1987 . South Africa vol. 2 (Gloucester, orig. pub. 1877), 55–6
- van Onselen , C. and van Onselen , C. 1890–1914 . Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand 1886–1914 Vol. 2 , vol.New Nineveh (Johannesburg, 1982), 1–73
- Ibid., 17
- Eales , K. 1912 . ‘“Jezebels”: Good Girls and Mine Married Quarters, Johannesburg,’ (Paper presented to the African Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, 17 Oct. 1998), 14–15
- Fuller , R. H. 1902/3/4 . South Africa at Home (London, c.
- Eales . ‘Jezebels’
- Onselen , Van . ‘Witches of Suburbia’, 18–19;Delius, Lion amongst the Cattle, 22
- van Onselen , C. 1890–1906 . ‘AmaWasha: The Zulu Washermen's Guild of the Witwatersrand, m’, in Van Onselen, Studies, 74–94;D. Gaitskell. ‘“Laundry, Liquor and Playing Ladish”: African Women in Johannesburg 1903–39’ (unpublished paper, 22 June 1978)
- Bonner . ‘The Transvaal Native Congress’, 278 n. 38
- Hausse , La . ‘Drink and Cultural Innovation’, 78–114
- Coplan , D. ‘The Emergence of an African Working Class Culture’, in Marks and Rathbone, Industrialisation and Social Change.
- Wilson , M. and Thompson , L. , eds. Reports of Resident Magistrates and Administrators of Native Law on Natives, 2009. County of Pietermaritzburg, City Division cited in D. Welsh, ‘The Growth of Towns’, in, eds, The Oxford History of South Africa 1870–1966 (Oxford, 1971), 186
- Berger . Threads of Solidarity 25
- Bradford , H. 1929 . Class, Community and Conflict: South African Perspectives Edited by: Bozzoli , B. Johannesburg ‘“We Are Now the Men”: Women's Beer Protests in the Natal Countryside,’, in, ed., (1987, 307;E. Koch, ‘“Without Visible Means of Subsistence”: Slumyard Culture in Johannesburg 1918—1940’, in Bozzoli, Town and Countryside, 161;J. Wells, “The Day the Town Stood Still”: Women and Resistance in Potchefstroom’, in Bozzoli, Town and Countryside.
- Koch . ‘Without Visible Means’, 152–75
- Hunter . To Joy My Freedom 58–61
- Cited in Litwack, Trouble in Mind, 168
- Ibid, 170
- Berger . Threads of Solidarity 41
- Onselen , Van . ‘Witches of Suburbia’, 57
- This was the case even if the wider protest of the period in both countries did not succeed in pushing back segregation or in reversing the white supremacist direction in which both societies were moving
- Gilmore . Gender and Jim Crow Gray White, Too Heavy a Load.
- Campbell , J. 1995 . Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa 157 New York and Oxford
- Wells , J. 1913 . ‘Why Women Rebel: A Comparative Study of South African Women's Resistance in Bloemfontein (and Johannesburg (1958)’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 10, 1(1983), 65
- Bonner . ‘Transvaal Native Congress’
- Hunter . To ‘Joy My Freedom ch. 4;Rabinowitz, Race Relations, 74;D.M. Katzman, Seven Daysa Week: Women and Domestic Service in Industrializing America (New'York, 1978), 196–7;Jones, Labor of Love, 112, 148–9;Litwack, Trouble in Mind, 174;Kirk, Making a Voice, 234–41
- Hunter . To ‘Joy My Freedom 97
- Eales . ‘Jezebels’, 20
- Jones . Labor of Love 149
- Kirk . Making a Voice 234–41
- Jones . Laboro/Love;H. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925 (New York, 1976);S. Harley, ‘For the Good of Family and Race: Gender, Work and Domestic Roles in the Black Community 1880–1930’, Signs, 15, 2 (1990), 336–49
- Horton , J. A. 1986 . Freedom's Yoke: Gender Conventions among Antebellum Free Blacks . Feminist Studies , 12 : 51 – 76 . , 1
- Litwack . Trouble in Mind 342
- Gaitskell , D. ‘Devout Domesticity? A Century of African Women's Christianity in South Africa’, in Walker, Women and Gender, 254–5;Gaitskell, ‘Housewives, Maids or Mothers’
- Marks . ‘Patriotism, Patriarchy’, 226–7
- Freund , B. 1915–1945 . Organisation and Economic Change Edited by: Mabin , A. 78 – 105 . Johannesburg ‘The Social Character of Secondary Industry in South Africa, with Special Reference to the Witwatersrand’, in, ed., (1989,;P. la Hausse, ‘The Struggle for the City: Alcohol, the Ematsheni and Popular Culture in Durban’, in I. Edwards and P. Maylam, eds, The People's City: African Life in Twentieth Century Durban (Portsmouth, NH and Pietermaritzburg, 1996), 39;Berger, Threads of Solidarity, 30
- Berger . Threads of Solidarity 30
- Nkotsoe , M. B. 1991 . Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa 1900–1983 Johannesburg See, for example (Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow; Gray White, Too Heavy a Load.
- Walker , C. 1982 . Women and Resistance in South Africa 43 London
- See Bradford, ‘We Are Now the Men’, 292–323
- Swanson , M. 1900–09 . Journal of African History , 18 : 387 – 410 . ‘The Sanitation Syndrome: Bubonic Plague and Urban Native Policy in the Cape Colony,’, (1977,;Bickford-Smith, Ethnic Pride, 150–60;A. Potgieter, ‘Die Swartes aan die Witwatersrand, 1900–1933’ (PhD thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, 1978), chs. 3 and 4;Litwack, Trouble in Mind, 341
- Litwack . Trouble in Mind 341
- Rabinowitz . Race Relations ch. 5;McMillen, Dark Journey, 12–14;Hunter, To ‘Joy My Freedom, 45–8
- Native Affairs Department (Transvaal) . The Laws and Regulations etc. Specially Relating to the Native Population of the Transvaal, 153, cited in Welsh, ‘The Growth of Towns’, 186;McMillen, Dark Journey, 23
- Bradford , H. 1987 . A Taste of Freedom: The ICU and Rural South Africa, 1924–1930 New Haven (W. Beinart, ‘Women in Rural Politics: Hershel District in the 1920s and 1930s’, in Bozzoli, Class, Community and Conflict, 324–400
- Campbell . Songs of Zion 143–74;Kirk, Making a Voice, chs. 5 and 7;Wells, We Now Demand, chs. 2 and 3
- On South Africa, see Van Onselen, ‘Witches of Suburbia'N. Etherington, ‘Natal's Black Rape Scare of the 1870s’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 1 (1988);Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire into Assaults on Women, U.G. 39–13;S. Plaatjie, The Mote and the Beam: An Epic in Sex Relationship ‘Twixt While and Black in British South Africa (pamphlet, c.1912). The relationship between concerns over gender, sexuality and racial thought surely also merits comparative examination. White obsessions with both black and poor white sexuality featured prominently in segregationist discourses. The ‘black peril’ panics which beset urban centres like the Witwatersrand in this earlier period had its counterpart in the sexual hysteria in the South, even if the sadistic lynching of black men did not become an established South African practice;Litwack, Trouble in Mind; G.M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914 (New York, 1971), 282;M. Hodes, ‘The Sexualisation of Reconstruction Politics: White Women and Black Men in the South after the Civil War’, Journal of the History of Sexuality 3 (Jan. 1993), 402–17;Ayers, Promise of the New South, 140
South African Historical Journal
Volume 43, 2000 - Issue 1