How Islam intersects ethnicity and social status in the Sahel

References

• Amselle, Jean-Loup, and Elikia M’Bokolo, eds. 1985. Au cœur de l’ethnie. Paris: La Découverte.
   Google Scholar
• Anthony, Douglas. 2000. “‘Islam Does Not Belong to Them’: Ethnic and Religious Identities among Male Igbo Converts in Hausaland.” Africa 70 (3): 422–441. doi: 10.3366/afr.2000.70.3.422
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apard, Élodie. 2015. “Boko Haram, le jihad en vidéo.” Politique africaine 138: 135–162. doi: 10.3917/polaf.138.0135
   Google Scholar
• Barth, Fredrik. 1969. Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference. London: Allen&Unwin.
   Google Scholar
• Berman, Bruce, and John Lonsdale. 1992. Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa: Violence and Ethnicity. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brenner, Louis. 2008. “Introduction: Fulfulde Religious Verse: Cultural Context and Mystical Inspiration.” In La poésie mystique peule du Mali, edited by Christiane Seydou, 11–35. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• Brubaker, Rogers. 2002. “Ethnicity without Groups.” Archives européennes de sociologie 43 (2): 163–189. doi: 10.1017/S0003975602001066
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casey, Conerly. 2008. “‘Marginal Muslims’: Politics and the Perceptual Bounds of Islamic Authenticity in Northern Nigeria.” Africa Today 54 (3): 57–92. doi: 10.2979/AFT.2008.54.3.66
   Google Scholar
• Champeaux, Nicolas. 2015. “Boko Haram au Niger: Ibrahim Ousmane, réfugié et handicapé.” Radio France Internationale. January 23. http://www.rfi.fr/afrique/20150123-reportage-boko-haram-niger-portrait-ibrahim-ousmane-refugie-handicape/.
   Google Scholar
• Conrad, David, and Barbara E. Frank, eds. 1995. Status and Identity in West Africa: Nyamakalaw of Mande. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• de Bruijn, Mirjam, and Han van Dijk, eds. 1997. Peuls et Mandingues. Dialectique des constructions identitaires. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• de Bruijn, Mirjam, and Lotte Pelckmans. 2005. “Facing Dilemmas: Former Fulbe Slaves in Modern Mali.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 39 (1): 69–95.
   Google Scholar
• Green, D., ed. 2002. Constructivism and Comparative Politics. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
   Google Scholar
• Grégoire, Emmanuel, and Jean Schmitz. 2000. “Monde arabe et Afrique noire: permanences et nouveaux liens.” Autrepart 16: 5–20.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, Bruce S. 2011. A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hanretta, Sean. 2009. Islam and Social Change in French West Africa: History of an Emancipatory Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hanson, John H. 1997. “Islam, Ethnicity and Fulbe-Mande Relations in the Era of Umar Tal’s Jihad.” In Peuls et Mandingues. Dialectique des constructions identitaires, edited by Mirjam de Bruijn and Han van Dijk, 85–97. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• Higazi, Adam, and Florence Brisset-Foucault. 2013. “Les origines et la transformation de l’insurrection de Boko Haram dans le nord du Nigéria.” Politique africaine 130: 137–164. doi: 10.3917/polaf.130.0137
   Google Scholar
• Hill, Joseph. 2012. “The Cosmopolitan Sahara: Building a Global Islamic Village in Mauritania.” City & Society 24 (1): 62–83. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-744X.2012.01068.x
   Google Scholar
• International Crisis Group. 2014. “Curbing Violence in Nigeria (II): The Boko Haram Insurgency.” Africa Report n. 216. http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/west-africa/nigeria/216-curbing-violence-in-nigeria-ii-the-boko-haram-insurgency.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Janson, Marloes. 2005. “Roaming About For God’s Sake: The Upsurge of the Tablìgh Jama’at in the Gambia.” Journal of Religion in Africa 35 (4): 450–481. doi: 10.1163/157006605774832199
   Google Scholar
• Jourde, Cédric. 2007. “Mauritania: The Clash of Authoritarianism and Ethnicity.” In Political Islam in West Africa: State-Society Relations Transformed, edited by William F. S. Miles, 101–127. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
   Google Scholar
• Jourde, Cédric. 2010. “Overlapping Solidarities: The Politics of Ethnicity and Sufi Turuq in Mauritania.” Maghreb Review 35 (1): 222–242.
   Google Scholar
• Jourde, Cédric. 2017. “Betrayal, Heresy, Exile and Mystical Attacks: The Cost of Changing One’s Islamic Affiliation in an Ethnicized Society (Mauritania and Senegal).” Mediterranean Politics 22 (1): 135–154. doi: 10.1080/13629395.2016.1230948
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane, Mouhamed M. 1997. “La vie et l’oeuvre d’Al-Hâjj Mahmoud Ba Diowol (1905–1978). Du pâtre au patron de la ‘Révolution Al-Falah’.” In Le Temps des marabouts. Itinéraires et stratégies islamiques en Afrique occidentale française v. 1880–1960, edited by David Robinson and Jean-Louis Triaud, 431–465. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• Keese, Alexander, ed. 2010. Ethnicity and the Long-term Perspective: The African Experience. Berlin: Peter Lang.
   Google Scholar
• Kyburz, Olivier. 1994. “Les hiérarchies sociales et leurs fondements idéologiques chez les Haalpulaaren (Sénégal).” Thèse de Doctorat, Université Paris X.
   Google Scholar
• Lacher, Wolfram. 2012. Organized Crime and Conflict in the Sahel-Sahara Region. The Carnegie Papers. September.
   Google Scholar
• LeBlanc, Marie-Nathalie. 2006. “L’orthodoxie à l’encontre des rites culturels : Enjeux identitaires chez les jeunes d’origine malienne à Bouaké (Côte-d’Ivoire).” Cahiers d’études africaines 46: 417–436. doi: 10.4000/etudesafricaines.5985
   Google Scholar
• Leservoisier, Olivier. 2005. “‘Nous voulons notre part !’. Les ambivalences du mouvement d’émancipation des Saafaalbe Hormankoobe de Djéol (Mauritanie).” Cahiers d’études africaines 45 (3–4): 987–1014. doi: 10.4000/etudesafricaines.5726
   Google Scholar
• Loimeier, Roman. 2012. “Boko Haram: The Development of a Militant Religious Movement in Nigeria.” Africa Spectrum 47 (2–3): 137–155.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lonsdale, John. 2004. “Moral and Political Argument in Kenya.” In Ethnicity and Democracy in Africa, edited by Bruce Berman, Dickson Eyoh, and Will Kymlicka, 73–95. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lydon, Ghislaine. 2009. On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-Century Western Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mamdani, Mahmood. 1996. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• McGregor, Andrew. 2014. “Where Trafficking and Terrorism Intersect: A Profile of Mauritanian Militant Hamada Ould Muhammad Kheirou.” Aberfoyle International Security. Accessed March 31, 2014. http://www.aberfoylesecurity.com/?p=823.
   Google Scholar
• The Nation. 2012. “How Bombers are Chosen, by Boko Haram Suspect.” Accessed February 9.  www.thenationonlineng.net/2011/index.php/mobile/news/36248-how-bombers-are-chosen-by-boko-haram-suspect.html.
   Google Scholar
• Nugent, Paul. 2008. “Putting the History Back into Ethnicity: Enslavement, Religion, and Cultural Brokerage in the Construction of Mandinka/Jola and Ewe/Agotime Identities in West Africa, c. 1650–1930.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 50 (4): 920–948. doi: 10.1017/S001041750800039X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osella, Filippo, and Caroline Osella. 2008. “Introduction: Islamic Reformism in South Asia.” Modern Asian Studies 42 (2–3): 247–257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ould Ahmed Salem, Zekeria. 2013. Prêcher dans le désert. Islam politique et changement social en Mauritanie. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• Pantucci, Raffaello, and Sacha Jesperson. 2015. “From Boko Haram to Ansaru: The Evolution of Nigerian Jihad.” Occasional Paper. RUSI Publications. Accessed April 2015. https://rusi.org/sites/default/files/201504_op_from_boko_haram_to_ansaru.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Pelckmans, Lotte. 2015. “Mali: Intra-ethnic Fragmentation and the Emergence of New (In-)Security Actors.” Protection and (In)security beyond the State. DIIS Report, no. 1: 43–50.
   Google Scholar
• Pieri, Zacharias P., and Jacob Zenn. 2016. “The Boko Haram Paradox: Ethnicity, Religion, and Historical Memory in Pursuit of a Caliphate.” African Security 9 (1): 66–88. doi: 10.1080/19392206.2016.1132906
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérouse de Montclos, Marc-André. 2012. “Boko Haram et le terrorisme islamiste au Nigeria: insurrection religieuse, contestation politique ou protestation sociale?” Questions de recherche, CERI-Sciences Po, n. 40.
   Google Scholar
• Pérouse de Montclos, Marc-André. 2015a. “Boko Haram et la souveraineté du Nigeria: une histoire de frontières.” Hérodote 159: 58–75.
   Google Scholar
• Pérouse de Montclos, Marc-André. 2015b. “Situation Report on Kwaya Kusar Local Government Area of Borno State, October 2015.” Nigeria Watch. http://www.nigeriawatch.org/media/html/NGA-Kwaya_Kusar.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Pérouse de Montclos, Marc-André. 2016. “A Sectarian Jihad in Nigeria: The Case of Boko Haram.” Small Wars & Insurgencies 27 (5): 878–895. doi: 10.1080/09592318.2016.1208286
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raineri, Luca, and Francesco Strazzari. 2015. “State, Secession, and Jihad: The Micropolitical Economy of Conflict in Northern Mali.” African Security 8 (4): 249–271. doi: 10.1080/19392206.2015.1100501
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, David. 1985. The Holy War of Umar Tal: The Western Sudan in the mid-Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, David. 2000. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880–1920. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Roy, Olivier. 2002. L’Islam mondialisé. New edition. Paris: Seuil.
   Google Scholar
• Sall, Ibrahima Abou. 2000. “La diffusion de la Tijâniyya au Fuuta-Tooro.” In La Tijâniyya, edited by Jean-Louis Triaud and David Robinson, 367–392. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• Sangaré, Boukary. 2013. Conflit au Nord du Mali et dynamiques sociales chez les Peuls du Hayré. Dakar: Université Cheikh Anta Diop. Mémoire de Master II.
   Google Scholar
• Scheele, Judith. 2012. Smugglers and Saints of the Sahara. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Seesemann, Rüdiger. 2011. The Divine Flood Ibrahim Niasse and the Roots of a Twentieth-Century Sufi Revival. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, David L. 2016. “Dandal Kura: A Narrative to Challenge Boko Haram.” African Security Review 25 (2): 215–217. doi: 10.1080/10246029.2016.1158388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soares, Benjamin. 1997. “The Fulbe shaykh and the Bambara ‘Pagan’: Contemporary Campaigns to Spread Islam in Mali.” In Peuls et Mandingues. Dialectique des constructions identitaires, edited by Mirjam de Bruijn and Han van Dijk, 267–280. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• Soares, Benjamin. 2005. Islam and The Prayer Economy: History and Authority in a Malian Town. Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Soares, Benjamin, and René Otayek, eds. 2007. Islam and Muslim Politics in Africa. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Tamari, Tal. 1991. “The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa.” The Journal of African History 32 (2): 221–250. doi: 10.1017/S0021853700025718
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiam, Adam. 2017. Centre du Mali: enjeux et dangers d’une crise négligée. Centre pour le dialogue humanitaire. https://www.hdcentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Centre-du-Mali-Enjeux-et-dangers-dune-crise-n%C3%A9glig%C3%A9e.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Thurston, Alex. 2016. “‘The Disease is Unbelief’: Boko Haram’s Religious and Political Worldview.” Analysis Paper, no. 22, The Brookings Institute, The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World.
   Google Scholar
• Tilly, Charles. 2005. Trust and Rule. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Triaud, Jean-Louis, and David Robinson, eds. 2000. La Tijâniyya: une confrérie musulmane à la conquête de l’Afrique. Paris: Karthala.
   Google Scholar
• Verkaaik, Oskar. 2004. Migrants and Militants: Fun and Urban Violence in Pakistan. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wimmer, Andreas. 2013. Waves of War: Nationalism, State Formation, and Ethnic Exclusion in the Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Young, Crawford. 1976. The Politics of Cultural Pluralism. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
   Google Scholar