Publication Cover
Politikon
South African Journal of Political Studies
Volume 50, 2023 - Issue 1
179
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

‘Biafra is made in heaven’: exploring the religious framing of the neo-Biafra secessionist movement in Nigeria

Pages 18-40 | Accepted 19 Jan 2023, Published online: 03 Feb 2023

References

  • Achebe, C. 2012. There was a Country: A Personal History of Biafra. New York: The Penguin Press.
  • Adebayo, T. 2022. “Nigerian Govt’s Actions Fuelled IPOB Violence in Southeast – Report.” Premium Times. Accessed January 17, 2023. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/521567-nigerian-govts-actions-fuelled-ipob-violence-in-southeast-report.html.
  • Adigun, O. W. 2018. “Repression of the Neo-Biafra Movement-Measures, Responses, and Consequences.” Journal of Social Sciences Studies 5 (2): 132–158. doi:10.5296/jsss.v5i2.13180.
  • AFP (Agence France-Presse). 2017. “Nigeria’s Biafra Separatists Mark 50years after Civil War”, 31 May. Accessed June 2, 2020. https://www.afp.com.
  • AFP (Agence France-Presse). 2019. “Pro-Biafran Group Calls Off Nigeria Election Boycott”, 17 February. Accessed June 2, 2020. https://www.afp.com.
  • Aghazadeh, J., and R. Mahmoudoghli. 2017. “Religion and Political Engagement.” Cogent Social Sciences 3: 1. doi:10.1080/23311886.2017.1368109.
  • Amanambu, U. E. 2017. “A Critical Reflection on the Biafran Agitations and the Questions of Nigerian Amalgamation in 1914.” IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities 3 (5): 57–74.
  • Amnesty International. 2016. Nigeria: ‘Bullets were Raining Everywhere’: Deadly Repression of pro-Biafra Activists. Amnesty International Nigeria. Accessed April 10, 2019. amnesty.org.ng.
  • Asekhauno, A. A., and C. E. Ukhun. 2015. “God, Heaven and Hell: The Philosophy of Belief.” Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies 5 (1): 35–52.
  • Asma, S. T. 2018. “Religion is about Emotion Regulation, and It’s Very Good at It.” Accessed November 22, 2022. https://aeon.co/ideas/religion-is-about-emotion-regulation-and-its-very-good-at-it.
  • Baumeister, R., C. N. DeWall, K. Vohs, and J. Alquist. 2009. “Does Emotion Cause Behavior (Apart from Making People Do Stupid, Destructive Things)?”. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195377798.003.0007.
  • Baumgart-Ochse, C. 2017. “Claiming Justice for Israel/Palestine: The Boycott, Divestment, Sanctions (BDS) Campaign and Christian Organizations.” Globalizations, doi:10.1080/14747731.2017.1310463.
  • Baumgart-Ochse, C., K. Glaab, P. J. Smith, and E. Smythe. 2017. “Faith in Justice? The Role of Religion in Struggles for Global Justice.” Globalizations, doi:10.1080/14747731.2017.1325574.
  • Bosco, R. M. 2018. “DSA’s Religion and Socialism Commission: A Social Movement Analysis.” Critical Research on Religion 6 (2): 151–167. doi:10.1177/2050303218774911.
  • Braun, V., and V. Clarke. 2006. “Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology.” Qualitative Research in Psychology 3: 77–101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  • Brown, R. Khari, and Robert E. Brown. 2003. “Faith and Works: Church-based Social Capital Resources and African American Political Activism.” Social Forces 82 (2): 617–641. doi:10.1353/sof.2004.0005
  • Bruder, E. 2008. The Black Jews of Africa: History, Religion, Identity. New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Bunza, M. U. 2016. “Challenges of Muslim-Christian Relations in Nigeria.” In Interfaith Dialogue. Pathways for Ecumenical and Interreligious Dialogue, edited by E. F. Chia, 59–72. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Campbell, D. E. 2004. “Acts of Faith: Churches and Political Engagement.” Political Behaviour 26 (2): 155–165. doi:10.1023/B:POBE.0000035961.78836.5f
  • Chiluwa, I. 2018. “A Nation Divided Against Itself: Biafra and the Conflicting Online Protest Discourses.” Discourse & Communication, 1–25. doi:10.1177/1750481318757778.
  • Chiluwa, I., and I. M. Chiluwa. 2020. “Separatists or Terrorists? Jews or Nigerians? Media and Cyber Discourses on the Complex Identity of the “Biafrans.”.” Journal of Language and Politics 19 (4): 583–603. doi:10.1075/jlp.19041.chi
  • Cloke, P., C. Sutherland, and A. Williams. 2016. “Postsecularity, Political Resistance and Protest in the Occupy Movement.” Antipode 48 (3): 497–523. doi:10.1111/anti.12200
  • Corrigan, J. 2007. “Introduction: The Study of Religion and Emotion.” In The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion (Online edn, Oxford Academic, 2 Sept. 2009), edited by John Corrigan. Accessed November 21, 2022. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195170214.003.0001.
  • Cuneo, M. 1989. Catholics Against the Church: Anti-Abortion Protest in Toronto, 1969-1985. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
  • DeCesare, M. 2013. “Toward an Interpretive Approach to Social Movement Leadership.” International Review of Modern Sociology 39 (2): 239–257.
  • della Porta, D., and M. Diani. 2006. Social Movements: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  • Department of Justice. 2019. “Responses to Information Requests-Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada.” Accessed January 7, 2020. https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/file/1189696/download.
  • DeSantis, L., and D. Noel Ugarriza. 2000. “The Concept of Theme as Used in Qualitative Nursing Research.” Western Journal of Nursing Research 22: 351–372. doi:10.1177/019394590002200308
  • Diara, B. C., and G. C. Nche. 2013. “Anglican Church and the Development of Pentecostalism in Igboland.” Journal of Educational and Social Research 3 (10): 43–52.
  • Donahue, M. J., and M. E. Nielsen. 2005. “Religion, Attitudes, and Social Behavior.” In Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, edited by R. F. Paloutzian and C. L. Park, 274–291. New York: The Guilford Press.
  • Douglas, M. 1966. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. New York: Praeger.
  • Druckman, J. N. 2001. “The Implications of Framing Effects for Citizen Competence.” Political Behavior 23 (3): 223–256. doi:10.1023/A:1015006907312
  • Durkheim, E. 1915. The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. Glencoe: The Free Press, George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
  • The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2020. Igbo. Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Igbo.
  • Ejekwonyilo, A. 2021. UPDATED: Nnamdi Kanu re-arrested, returned to Nigeria – Malami. Premium Times. Accessed January 17, 2023. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/470566-updated-nnamdi-kanu-re-arrested-returned-to-nigeria-malami.html.
  • Ekwueme, A. C., and U. S. Ugwuanyi. 2018. “Analysis of Online Reactions to the Proscription of IPOB as Terrorist Organization.” Global Journal of Human-Social Science 18 (2): 41–50.
  • Ekwunife, A. N. O. 1990. Consecration in Igbo Traditional Religion. Enugu: SNAAP Press Ltd, Jet Publishers.
  • Ezekwugo, C. 1987. Chi the Supreme God in Igbo Religion. Kerala: Pontifical Institute.
  • Ezeugwu, E. C., and G. E. Chinweuba. 2018. “The Supreme Being in Igbo Thought: A Reappraisal.” Philosophia 21: 26–47.
  • Ganz, M., and L. McKenna. 2017. The Practice of Social Movement Leadership. Mobilizing Ideas. The Center for the Study of Social Movements at the University of Notre Dame. Accessed January 5, 2020. https://mobilizingideas.wordpress.com/2017/06/23/.
  • Gbrich, C. 2007. Qualitative Data Analysis: An Introduction. 1st ed. London: Sage.
  • Geertz, C. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
  • Gerlach, L., and V. Hine. 1970. People, Power, Change: Movements of Social Transformation. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill.
  • Goffman, E. 1974. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Boston, MA: North Eastern University Press.
  • Hannigan, J. A. 1991. “Social Movement Theory and the Sociology of Religion: Toward a New Synthesis.” Sociological Analysis 52 (4): 311–331. doi:10.2307/3710849
  • Hart, S. 2001. Cultural Dilemmas of Progressive Politics: Styles of Engagement among Grassroots Activists. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Hoffman, A. J. 2011. “Talking Past Each Other? Cultural Framing of Skeptical and Convinced Logics in the Climate Change Debate.” Organization & Environment 24 (1): 3–33. doi:10.1177/1086026611404336.
  • Hsieh, H.-F., and S. E. Shannon. 2005. “Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis.” Qualitative Health Research 15 (9): 1277–1288. doi:10.1177/1049732305276687
  • Hutchison, E. D. 2012. “Spirituality, Religion, and Progressive Social Movements: Resources and Motivation for Social Change.” Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought 31 (1–2): 105–127. doi:10.1080/15426432.2012.647891
  • Ibeanu, O., N. Orji, and C. K. Iwuamadi. 2016. Biafra Separatism: Causes, Consequences and Remedies. Enugu: Institute for Innovations in Development.
  • “Igbo.”. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life. Accessed June 8, 2020. Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/igbo-0.
  • “Igbo Religion”. 2020. “Encyclopedia of Religion.” Accessed June 08, 2020. Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/igbo-religion. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/igbo-religion.
  • Isichei, E. A. 1997. A History of African Societies to 1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Kuypers, J. A. 2009. “Framing Analysis.” In Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, edited by J. A. Kuypers, 181–204. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
  • Mbiti, J. S. 1970. African Religions and Philosophy. London: Monison & Gibbs.
  • McAdam, D. 1996. “The Framing Function of Movement Tactics: Strategic Dramaturgy in the American Civil Rights Movement.” In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements, edited by D. McAdam, J. McCarthy, and M. Zald, 338–355. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • McAdam, D. 1999. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency 1930–70. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • McCleary, Rachel M., and Robert J. Barro. 2006. “Religion and Economy.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20 (2): 49–72. doi:10.1257/jep.20.2.49
  • Morris, A. 1986. Origins of the Civil Rights Movement. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
  • Morrow, R., A. Rodriguez, and N. King. 2015. “Colaizzi Descriptive Phenomenological Method.” The Psychologist 28 (8): 643–644.
  • Nche, G. C. 2014. “The Impact of Climate Change on African Traditional Religious Practices.” Journal of Earth Science and Climatic Change 5 (7): 1–5.
  • Nche, G. C. 2019. “Young Women and Political Participation: Gender Differences in the Awareness, Knowledge and Support for Political Restructuring among Youths in Nigeria.” Gender Studies 7 (1): 1–26. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-1c739d1ccf.
  • Nche, G. C. 2020a. “Beyond Spiritual Focus: Climate Change Awareness, Role Perception and Action among Church Leaders in Nigeria.” Weather Climate & Society 12 (1): 149–169. doi:10.1175/WCAS-D-19-0001.1
  • Nche, G. C. 2020b. “The Religion-Environment (Climate Change) Connection: Evidence from Nigeria.” Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture and Ecology 24 (1): 81–115. doi:10.1163/15685357-20201004
  • Nche, G. C. 2020c. “Cultism in Rivers State: Causes, Faith-Based Organizations’ Role and the Setbacks.” Transformation: An International Journal of Holistic Mission Studies 37 (1): 18–36. doi:10.1177/0265378819878212
  • Nche, G. C. 2022. “Good, But Not Good Enough: What Church Leaders Think About the Presidential Amnesty Programme in Rivers State, Nigeria.” Security Journal 35: 1220–1248. doi:10.1057/s41284-021-00323-0
  • Nche, G. C., and U. M. Agbo. 2022. “The Campaign Against COVID-19 in Nigeria: Exploring Church Leaders’ Role Perception and Action.” Religion, Brain & Behavior 12 (4): 365–383. doi:10.1080/2153599X.2022.2056911
  • Nche, G. C., A. O. Otu, M. I. Ugwueze, G. P. U. C. Okechukwu, E. N. Ejem, and O. Ononogbu. 2020. “Knowledge and Support for Political Restructuring among Youths in Nigeria: Are There Ethnic and Religious Differences?” Cogent Social Sciences 6 (1): 1789369. doi:10.1080/23311886.2020.1789369
  • Nche, G. C., M. I. Ugwueze, and C. I. Ugwu. 2022. “‘As the Israelites in the Land of Egypt, So are We in Nigeria’: The Significance of the Exodus Event for Biafra Secessionist Movement.” Journal of Church and State. doi:10.1093/jcs/csac023.
  • Nche, G. C., C. Wachukwu, C. T. Nwaoga, E. M. Mokwenye, P. Agwu, and D. I. Alagboso. 2019. “‘We Sleep with One Eye Open’: Exploring the Experiences of Churches in Rivers State, Nigeria.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 54 (8): 1–18. doi:10.1177/0021909619865582.
  • Nwangwu, C. 2018. “Ako-na-uche versus Nzogbu-nzogbu: Interrogating the Rupture between Igbo Elite and their lumpen in Igbo Nationalism.” AfriHeritage Research Working Paper Series, 005. African Heritage Institute.
  • Nwangwu, C. 2022. “Neo-Biafra Separatist Agitations, State Repression and Insecurity in South-East, Nigeria.” Society, doi:10.1007/s12115-022-00782-0.
  • Nwangwu, C., F. C. Onuoha, B. U. Nwosu, and C. Ezeibe. 2020. “The Political Economy of Biafra Separatism and Post-war Igbo Nationalism in Nigeria.” African Affairs 119 (477): 526–551. doi:10.1093/afraf/adaa025
  • Nwaoga, T. C., G. C. Nche, and O. A. Ononogbu. 2014. “The National Conference, Ethno-Religious Pluralism and the Challenge of National Unity in Nigeria.” Global Journal of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences 2 (3): 44–58.
  • Nwodo, J. N. 2017. Next Generation Nigeria: Participation, Accountability and National Cohesion. Chatham House. The Royal Institute of International Affairs.
  • Nwoga, D. 1984. The Supreme God as Stranger in Igbo Religious Thought. Ekwereazu: Hawk Press.
  • Nze, C. B. 1981. “Pragmatism and Traditionalism in the Concept of God in African Culture.” Uche Journal of the Department of Philosophy 5: 21–25.
  • Oduah, C. 2013. “Nigeria’s Igbo Jews: Lost tribe of Israel?” CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2013/02/01/world/africa/nigeria-jews-igbo/index.html.
  • Okeke, C. O., C. N. Ibenwa, and G. T. Okeke. 2017. “Conflicts Between African Traditional Religion and Christianity in Eastern Nigeria: The Igbo Example.” SAGE Open 7 (2): 1–10. doi:10.1177/2158244017709322
  • Onuoha, G. 2018. “Memory, Reconciliation, and Peacebuilding in Post-civil War Southeastern Nigeria.” African Peacebuilding Network (APN) Working Papers: NO. 19.
  • Polletta, F. 2004. “Culture is Not Just in Your Head.” In Rethinking Social Movements, edited by J. Goodwin and J. Jasper, 97–110. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
  • The Religious Literacy Project. 2020. Judaism in Nigeria. Cambridge: Harvard Divinity School. https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/faq/judaism-nigeria.
  • Rieger, J. 2019. “Grassroots Social Movements.” In The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Political Theology, edited by W. T. Cavanaugh and P. Scott, 558–571. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
  • Rohman, A., and D. Pitaloka. 2020. “What Leads a Movement to Disband? Frictions Within the Kopi Badati Movement, Ambon, Indonesia.” Social Movement Studies 20 (5): 584–599. doi:10.1080/14742837.2020.1805308.
  • Rufai, S. A. 2012. “A Foreign Faith in a Christian Domain: Islam among the Igbos of Southeastern Nigeria.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 32 (3): 372–383. doi:10.1080/13602004.2012.727296
  • Ryan, C., and W. A. Gamson. 2006. “The Art of Reframing Political Debates.” Contexts 5 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1525/ctx.2006.5.1.13
  • Shehu, I. M., M. F. Othman, and N. Osman. 2017. “Ethno-religious and Regional Rivalry in Nigeria: An Old and Creeping Trend.” Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies 5 (5): 14–24.
  • Shosha, G. A. 2010. “Employment of Colaizzi’s Strategy in Descriptive Phenomenology: A Reflection of a Researcher.” European Scientific Journal 8 (27): 31–43. doi:10.19044/esj.2012.v8n27p%25p.
  • Smith, C., ed. 1996. Disruptive Religion: The Force of Faith in Social Movement Activism. London: Routledge.
  • Smith, P. J., and E. Smythe. 2017. “Faith Groups and Justice: A Source of Solidarity or Division in the Global Justice Movement? The World Social Forum and Occupy Wall Street as Case Studies.” Globalizations, doi:10.1080/14747731.2017.1314628.
  • Snarr, C. M. 2009. “Religion, Race, and Bridge Building in Economic Justice Coalitions.” WorkingUSA 12 (1): 73–95. doi:10.1163/17434580-01201006.
  • Snow, David A. 2013. “Framing and Social Movements.” In The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements, edited by David A. Snow, Donatella Della Porta, Bert Klandermans and Doug Mcadam, 470–475. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Talbott, T. Fall 2017 Edition. “Heaven and Hell in Christian Thought.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2017/entries/heaven-hell/
  • Tarrow, S. 1994. Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
  • Thompson, O. O., C. C. Ojukwu, and O. G. F. Nwaorgu. 2016. “United we Fall, Divided We Stand: Resuscitation of the Biafra State Secession and the National Question Conundrum.” JORIND 14 (1): 1–14.
  • Ugwu, C. O. T. 2014. “The Demise of the African God/s: Fallacy or Reality.” 84th Inaugural Lecture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
  • Ugwueze, M. I. 2019. “Trauma and Memory: Explaining the Longevity of the Biafra Secessionist Movement in Nigeria.” Africa Insight 49 (2): 56–69. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-197e40223a.
  • Ugwueze, M. I. 2021. “Biafra War Documentaries: Explaining Continual Resurgence of Secessionist Agitations in the South-East, Nigeria.” Civil Wars 23 (2): 207–233. doi:10.1080/13698249.2021.1903781.
  • Vaismoradi, M., H. Turunen, and T. Bondas. 2013. “Content Analysis and Thematic Analysis: Implications for Conducting a Qualitative Descriptive Study.” Nursing & Health Sciences 15 (3): 398–405. doi:10.1111/nhs.12048
  • Wahab, B. 2019. “IPOB Orders Members to Attack South-East Governors Abroad.” Pulse. Accessed January 5, 2020. https://www.pulse.ng/news/local/.
  • Wald, K., A. Silverman, and K. Fridy. 2005. “Making Sense of Religion in Political Life.” Annual Review of Political Science 8: 121–143. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.8.083104.163853
  • Williams, R. 2002. “From the ‘Beloved Community’ to ‘Family Values’: Religious Language, Symbolic Repertoires and Democratic Culture.” In Social Movements: Identity, Culture and the State, edited by David S. Meyer, Nancy Whittier, and Belinda Robnett, 247–265. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Winter, E. 2017. “An Activist Religiosity? Exploring Christian Support for the Occupy Movement.” Journal of Contemporary Religion 32 (1): 51–66. doi:10.1080/13537903.2016.1256648

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.