References
- Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 11–39). Springer.
- Ajzen, I. (1985, 1988). TPB diagram. http://people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.diag.html
- Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational behavior and human. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
- Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(4), 1–20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00236.x
- Ajzen, I., & Driver, B. (1991). Prediction of leisure participation from behavioral, normative, and control beliefs: An application of the theory of planned behavior. Leisure Sciences, 13(3), 185-204.Application of the theory of planned behavior to leisure choice. Journal of Leisure Research, 24, 207–224. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.1992.11969889
- Alexandris, K., Kenanidis, T., Balaska, P., & Ntovoli, A. (2020). The impact of the economic crisis on the private fitness sector in Greece. In J. Scheerder, H. Vehmas, & K. Helsen (Eds.), The rise and size of the fitness industry in Europe: Fit for the future? (pp. 241-256). MacMillan.
- Alexandris, K., Du, J., Funk, D., & Theodorakis, N. D. (2016). Leisure constraints and the psychological continuum model: A study among recreational mountain skiers. Leisure Studies, 36(5), 670–683. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2016.1263871
- Alexandris, K., Funk, D., & Pritchard, M. (2011). The impact of constraints on motivation, activity attachment and skier intentions to continue. Journal of Leisure Research, 43(1), 56–79. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2011.11950226
- Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., & Girgolas, G., & Girgolas. (2007). Investigating the relationships among motivation, negotiation, and alpine skiing participation. Journal of Leisure Research, 39(4), 648–668. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2007.11950126
- Alexandris, K., & Stodolska, M. (2004). The influence of perceived constraints on the attitudes toward recreational sport participation. Loisir Et Société/Society and Leisure, 27(1), 197–217. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/07053436.2004.10707647
- Alexandris, K., Tsorbatzoudis, C., & Grouios, G. (2002). Perceived constraints on recreational sport participation: Investigating their relationship with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(3), 233–252. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/00222216.2002.11949970
- Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02723327
- Benveniste, A. (2020, April 1). The $94 billion fitness industry is reinventing itself as Covid-19 spreads. CNN Business. Retrieved June 7, 2020, from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/01/business/fitness-studios-coronavirus
- Bloomberg (2020, March 25). COVID-19 impact: Almost overnight, the $100 billion fitness industry goes virtual. Retrieved June 22, 2020, from https://gulfnews.com/business/covid-19-impact-almost-overnight-the-100-billion-fitness-industry-goes-virtual-1.1585132480889
- Brown, T. (2014). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford Press.
- Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge
- Cho, H., Hussain, R. S. B., & Kang, H.-K. (2020). The role of social support and its influence on exercise participation: The perspective of self-determination theory and the theory of planned behavior. The Social Science Journal, 57(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/03623319.2020.1756176
- Clemente-Suárez, V. J., Dalamitros, A. A., Beltran-Velasco, A. I., Mielgo-Ayuso, J., & Tornero-Aguilera, J. F. (2020). Social and psychophysiological consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic: An extensive literature review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 580225. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.580225
- Conner, M., & Sparks, P. (2005). The theory of planned behavior and health behavior. In M. Conner & P. Norman (Eds.), Predicting health behavior (2nd) (pp. 121-162). Open University Press.
- Conner, M. (2020). Theory of planned behavior. In G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Eds.), the Handbook of Sport Psychology(p. 1-18). John, Wiley & Sons, Inc.
- Conner, M., Norman, P., & Bell, R. (2002). The theory of planned behavior and healthy eating. Health Psychology, 21(2), 194–201. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.21.2.194
- Crawford, D., & Godbey, G. (1987). Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure. Leisure Sciences, 9(2), 119–127. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01490408709512151
- Crawford, D., Jackson, E., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13(4), 309–320. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01490409109513147
- Davalos, J. (2021, January 19). How Covid-19 has permanently changed the fitness industry, Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-19/fitness-industry-may-never-return-to-its-old-ways-after-covid-19
- Ding, D., del Pozo Cruz, B., Green, M. A., & Bauman, A. E. (2020). Is the COVID-19 lockdown nudging people to be more active: A big data analysis. British Journal of Sport Medicine, 54(20), 1183–1187. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-102575
- Du, J., Floyd, C., Kim, A. C. H., Baker, B., Sato, M., James, J., & Funk, D. (2021, in press). To be or not to be: Negotiating leisure constraints with technology and data analytics amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Leisure Studies, 1-14. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/02614367.2020.1862284
- Ecorys and SportsEconAustria (SpEA) (2020). Mapping study on measuring the economic impact of COVID-19 on the sport sector in the EU: A report to the European Commission.
- EuropeActive (2020, March 18). Raising the digital profile of your business creating member value with digitalization, from: https://www.europeactive.eu/covid19/raising-digital-profile-your-business
- Fitness Australia, (2020, April). Fitness Australia: COVID-19 fitness industry impact report. Retrieved July 6, 2020, from https://fitness.org.au/research-and-publications/19
- Fornell, G., & Lacker, R. N. (1981). Introduction to linear regression analysis. John Wiley and Sons.
- Gomes, A. R., Gonçalves, A. M., Maddux, J. E., & Carneiro, L. (2018). The intention-behaviour gap: An empirical examination of an integrative perspective to explain exercise behaviour. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(6), 607-621.
- Gough, C., (June 19, 2020). COVID-19: Effect on revenue from sports industry worldwide, Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/269797/worldwide-revenue-from-sports-merchandising/
- Hammami, A., Harrabi, B., Mohr, M., & Krustrup, P. (2020). Physical activity and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): Specific recommendations for home-based physical training. Managing Sport and Leisure, 1–6. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1757494
- Ingledew, D. K., & Markland, D. (2008). The role of motives in exercise participation. Psychology and Health, 23(7), 807–828.
- Jackson, E. (1993). Special issue, introduction. Leisure constraints/constrained leisure. Leisure Sciences, 13(4), 273–278. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01490409109513144
- Jackson, E. L. (2000). Will research on leisure constraints still be relevant in the twenty-first century?. Journal of Leisure Research, 32(1), 62–68.
- Jackson, E. L., Crawford, D. W., & Godbey, G. (1993). Negotiation of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 15(1), 1–11.
- Jiménez-Pavón, D., Carbonell-Baeza, A., & Lavie, C. J. (2020). Physical exercise as therapy to fight against the mental and physical consequences of COVID-19 quarantine: Special focus in older people. Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases, 63(3), 386–388. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2020.03.009
- Kaur, H., Singh, T., Arya, Y. K., & Mittal, S. (2020). Physical fitness and exercise during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative enquiry. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 590172. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.590172
- Kaushal, N., Keith, N., Aguiñaga, S., & Hagger, M. S. (2020). Social cognition and socioecological predictors of home-based physical activity intentions, planning, and habits during the COVID-19 pandemic. Behavioral Sciences, 10(9), 133–145. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/bs10090133
- Kim, Y. J., Cho, J. H., & Park, Y. J. (2020). Leisure sports participants’ engagement in preventive health behaviors and their experience of constraints on performing leisure activities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 589708. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.589708
- Lange, D. (2020). COVID-19:sport industry revenue loss 2020, Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1114808/coronavirus-sports-revenue-loss/
- Lange, D. (2021). Timescale for being comfortable going back the gym or an exercise class due to the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in the United States as of October 2020. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1110995/covid-estimated-comfort-gym-classes/
- Lu, W. C., Lin, S. H., & Cheng, C. F. (2011). Sports spectator behavior: A test of the theory of planned behavior. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 113(3), 1017–1026. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2466/05.17.PMS.113.6.1017-1026
- McEachan, R. R. C., Conner, M., Taylor, N. J., & Lawton, R. J. (2011). Prospective prediction of health-related behaviours with the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. Health Psychology Review, 5(2), 97–144. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2010.521684
- Mervosh, S., Lee, J. C., Gamio, L., & Popovich, N. (2020). See which states are reopening and which are still shutdown. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/us/states-reopen-map-coronavirus.html
- Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G., & Guarino, A. J. (2016). Applied multivariate research: Design and interpretation. Sage publications
- Parnell, D., Widdop, P., Bond, A., & Wilson, R. (2020). COVID-19, networks and sport. Managing Sport and Leisure, (1), 1–7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/23750472.2020.1750100
- Ratten, V. (2020). Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and sport entrepreneurship. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 26(6), 379–388. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-06-2020-0387
- Rhodes, R. E., Saelens, B. E., & Sauvage-Mar, C. (2018). Understanding physical activity through interactions between the built environment and social cognition: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 48(8), 1893–1912. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0934-0
- Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling. Psychology Press
- SFIA (2020, April). COVID-19 Industry Impact Report. Retrieved June 7, 2020, from https://www.sfia.org/reports/829_COVID-19-Industry-Impact-Report—April-Edition
- Sivan, A. (2020). Reflection on leisure during COVID-19. World Leisure Journal, 62(4), 296–299. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/16078055.2020.1825260
- Stodolska, M. (2021). #QuarantineChallenge2k20: Leisure in the time of the pandemic. Leisure Sciences, 43(1–2), 232–239. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2020.1774007
- Williams, D. J. (2021). From gym rat to rock star! Negotiating constraints to leisure experience via a strengths and substitutability approach. Leisure Sciences, 43(1–2), 31–35. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2020.1773979