The effect of cognitive flexibility on students’ spatial visualization abilities and computational thinking skills in a three-dimensional design and coding training

References

• Akçay, A. O., E. Karahan, and S. Türk. (2019). “Bilgi işlemsel düşünme becerileri odaklı okul sonrası kodlama sürecinde ilkokul öğrencilerinin deneyimlerinin incelenmesi.“ Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Türk Dünyası Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi Eğitim Dergisi 4 (2): 38–50.
   Google Scholar
• Alper, A., and D. Deryakulu. (2010). “Web ortamlı probleme dayalı öğrenmede bilişsel esneklik düzeyinin öğrenci başarısı ve tutumları üzerindeki etkisi.“ Eğitim ve Bilim 33 (148): 49–63.
   Google Scholar
• Altunkol, F. 2011. Master’s thesis, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Üniversite öğrencilerinin bilişsel esneklikleri ile algılanan stres düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, P. 2002. “Assessment and Development of Executive Function (EF) During Childhood.” Child Neuropsychology 8 (2): 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anđić, B., Z. Lavicza, E. Ulbrich, S. Cvjetićanin, F. Petrović, and M. Maričić. 2022. “Contribution of 3D Modelling and Printing to Learning in Primary Schools: A Case Study with Visually Impaired Students from an Inclusive Biology Classroom.” Journal of Biological Education, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00219266.2022.2118352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelopoulos, P., A. Balatsoukas, and A. Nistor. 2020. “The Use of 3D Technologies to Support Computational Thinking in STEM Education.” In Handbook of Research on Tools for Teaching Computational Thinking in P-12 Education, edited by M. Kalogiannakis and S. Papadakis, 425–459. USA: IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-4576-8.ch017.
   Google Scholar
• Atasoy, B., A. O. Yüksel, and S. Özdemir. 2019. “3B tasarım uygulamalarının uzamsal beceriye etkisi: Hackidhon örneği.” Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 39 (1): 341–371. https://doi.org/10.17152/gefad.428172.
   Google Scholar
• Atman Uslu, N., F. Mumcu, and F.Ein. 2018. “The Effect of Visual Programming Activities on Secondary School Students’ Computational Thinking Skills.” Journal of Ege Education Technologies 2 (1): 19–31.
   Google Scholar
• Atmatzidou, S., and S. Demetriadis, 2016. “Advancing Students’ Computational Thinking Skills Through Educational Robotics: A Study on Age and Gender Relevant Differences.” Robotics and Autonomous Systems 75: 661–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.robot.2015.10.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batting, W. T. 1979. “Are the Important “Individual Differences” Between or Within Individuals?” Journal of Research in Personality 13 (4): 546–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(79)90015-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battista, M. T., G. H. Wheatley, and G. Talsma. 1982, “The Importance of Spatial Visualisation and Cognitive Development for Geometry Learning in Preservice Elementary Teachers.” Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 13 (5): 332–340. https://doi.org/10.2307/749007.
   Google Scholar
• Benzer, A. I., and B. Yildiz. 2019. “The Effect of Computer-Aided 3D Modelling Activities on Pre-Service Teachers’ Spatial Abilities and Attitudes Towards 3D Modelling.” Journal of Baltic Science Education 18 (3): 335. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/19.18.335.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhaduri, S., Q. L. Biddy, J. Bush, A. Suresh, and T. Sumner. 2021. “3DnST: A Framework Towards Understanding Children’s Interaction with Tinkercad and Enhancing Spatial Thinking Skills.” In Proceedings of the 20th Annual ACM Interaction Design and Children Conference, Athens, Greece, June 24-30, 2021. 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1145/3459990.3460717.
   Google Scholar
• Bilgin, M. 2009. “Developing a Cognitive Flexibility Scale: Validity and Reliability Studies.” Social Behaviour & Personality: An International Journal 37 (3): 343–353. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2009.37.3.343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, V., and V. Clarke. 2006. “Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology.” Qualitative Research in Psychology 3 (2): 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
   Google Scholar
• Buckley, J., N. Seery, and D. Canty, 2019. “Investigating the Use of Spatial Reasoning Strategies in Geometric Problem Solving.” International Journal of Technology and Design Education 29 (2): 341–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-018-9446-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buss, A., and R. Gamboa. 2017. “Teacher Transformations in Developing Computational Thinking: Gaming and Robotics Use in After-School Settings.” In Emerging Research, Practice, and Policy on Computational Thinking. Educational Communications and Technology: Issues and Innovations, edited by P. Rich and C. Hodges, 189–203. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52691-1_12.
   Google Scholar
• Byundyugova, T., E. Kornienko, and O. Kolina. 2020, “The Use of Visualisation Technologies within the Framework of Adult Education in the Digital Space.” Proceedings of the 2nd International Scientific Conference on Innovations in Digital Economy: SPBPU IDE-2020, Petersburg, Saint, Russian Federation, October 22-23, 2020. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1145/3444465.3444484.
   Google Scholar
• Cakiroglu, U., and H. Yilmaz. 2017. “Using Videos and 3D Animations for Conceptual Learning in Basic Computer Units.” Contemporary Educational Technology 8 (4): 390–405. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/6207.
   Google Scholar
• Canas, J., J. Quesada, A. Antolí, and I. Fajardo. 2003, “Cognitive Flexibility and Adaptability to Environmental Changes in Dynamic Complex Problem-Solving Tasks.” Ergonomics 46 (5): 482–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/0014013031000061640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canessa, E., C. Fonda, and M. Zennaro. 2013. Low-Cost 3D Printing for Science, Education, & Sustainable Development, 12. Italy: ICTP—The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics. ICTP Science Dissemination Unit.
   Google Scholar
• Carroll, J. B. 1993. Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies (No. 1). New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Çetin, E. 2020. “Uzaktan Eğitimde Uzamsal Görselleştirme: 3 Boyutlu Tasarım Sürecinin Uzamsal Yeteneğe Etkisi.” Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi 28 (6): 2295–2304. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.833530.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, Y. L., K. Murthi, W. Martin, R. Vidiksis, A. Riccio, and K. Patten. 2021. “Experiences of Students, Teachers, and Parents Participating in an Inclusive, School-Based Informal Engineering Education Programme.” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 52 (8): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-05230-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chou, P. N., and R. C. Shih. 2020. “3D Digital Design to Support Elementary School Students’ Spatial Visualisation Skills: A Preliminary Analysis.” International Conference on Innovative Technologies and Learning, edited by T. C. Huang, T. T. Wu, J. Barroso, F. E. Sandnes, P. Martins, and Y. M. Huang, 12555, 71–76. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63885-6_8.
   Google Scholar
• Città, G., M. Gentile, M. Allegra, M. Arrigo, D. Conti, S. Ottaviano, and M. Sciortino. 2019. “The Effects of Mental Rotation on Computational Thinking.” Computers & Education 141: 103613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103613.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. 1988. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences. 2nd ed., Routledge, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587.
   Google Scholar
• Cui, J., S. Wang, L. Lv, X. Ran, Z. Cui, and X. Zhou. 2023. “Different Cognitive Mechanisms Used for Solving Open and Closed Math Problems.” International Journal of Psychology 58 (6): 584–593. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czerkawski, B. 2013. “Instructional Design for Computational Thinking.” Proceedings of SITE 2013--Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference, edited by R. McBride and M. Searson, 10–17. Waynesville, NC USA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/48062/.
   Google Scholar
• Delialioğlu, Ö., and P. Aşkar. 1999. “Contribution of students’ Mathematical Skills and Spatial Ability of Achievement in Secondary School Physics.” Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 16 (16): 34–39.
   Google Scholar
• Desme, C. J., A.S. Dick, T.B. Hayes, and S.M. Pruden. 2024. “Individual Differences in Emerging Adults’ Spatial Abilities: What Role Do Affective Factors Play?” Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 9 (1): 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-024-00538-w.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diago, P. D., J.A. González-Calero, and D.F. Yañez. 2021. “Exploring the Development of Mental Rotation and Computational Skills in Elementary Students Through Educational Robotics.” International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction 32: 100388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2021.100388.
   Google Scholar
• Di Lieto, M. C., E. Inguaggiato, E. Castro, F. Cecchi, G. Cioni, M. Dell'Omo, and P. Dario. 2017. “Educational Robotics Intervention on Executive Functions in Preschool Children: A Pilot Study.” Computers in Human Behaviour 71: 16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dilling, F., and A. Vogel. 2021. “Fostering Spatial Ability Through Computer-Aided Design: A Case Study.” Digital Experiences in Mathematics Education 7 (2): 323–336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40751-021-00084-w.
   Google Scholar
• Dumontheil, I., and T. Klingberg. 2012. “Brain Activity During a Vasuospatial Working Memory Task Predicts Arithmetical Performance 2 Years Later.” Cerebral Cortex 22 (5): 1078–1085. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr175.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durak, H. Y. 2020. “Modelling Different Variables in Learning Basic Concepts of Programming in Flipped Classrooms.” Journal of Educational Computing Research 58 (1): 160–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633119827956.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dursun, Ö. 2010. Master’s thesis, Middle East Technical University. The Relationships Among the Preservice Teachers’ Spatial Visualisation Ability, Geometry Self-Efficacy, and Spatial Anxiety.
   Google Scholar
• Ebersbach, M., and H. Hagern. 2011. “The Role of Cognitive Flexibility in the Spatial Representation of Children’s Drawings.” Journal of Cognition and Development 12 (1): 32–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2011.539526.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eryilmaz, S., and G. Deniz. 2021. “Effect of Tinkercad on Students’ Computational Thinking Skills and Perceptions: A Case of Ankara Province.” Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET) 20 (1): 25–38.
   Google Scholar
• Field, A. 2013. Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics. Washington, D.C.: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Fowler, S., C. Cutting, J. Kennedy, S.N. Leonard, F. Gabriel, and W. Jaeschke. 2021. “Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments and the Potential for Enhancing Spatial Reasoning: A Mixed Methods Study.” Mathematics Education Research Journal 34 (4): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13394-021-00368-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagnier, K. M., S.J. Holochwost, and K.R. Fisher. 2022. “Spatial Thinking in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics: Elementary Teachers’ Beliefs, Perceptions, and Self-Efficacy.” Journal of Research in Science Teaching 59 (1): 95–126. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21722.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner,H. (2011). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Gay, L. R., G.E. Mills, and P. Airasian. 2012. Educational Research Competencies for Analysis and Application, 7, p. 185, p. 266, p. 267. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Gutiérrez, A. 1996. “Visualisation in 3-Dimensional Geometry: In Search of a Framework.” Pme Conference, Valencia (Spain), 1–3 (Vol. 1, July). The programme committee of the 18th PM conference.
   Google Scholar
• Hanife, E.A. (2018). “The Relationship Between Pre-Service Teachers’ Cognitive Flexibility and Interpersonal Problem Solving Skills.” Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 18 (77): 105–128. https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2018.77.6.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, D., T. Logan, and T. Lowrie. (2023).“Spatial visualisation and measurement of area: A case study in spatialized mathematics instruction.“ The Journal of Mathematical Behaviour 70:101038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2023.101038.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawes, Z., and D. Ansari, 2020. “What Explains the Relationship Between Spatial and Mathematical Skills? A Review of Evidence from Brain and Behaviour.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 27 (3): 465–482. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-019-01694-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsing, H. W., D. Bairaktarova, and N. Lau, 2023. “Using Eye Gaze to Reveal Cognitive Processes and Strategies of Engineering Students When Solving Spatial Rotation and Mental Cutting Tasks.” Journal of Engineering Education 112 (1): 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20495.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, T. C., M. Y. Chen, and C. Y. Lin. 2019. “Exploring the Behavioural Patterns Transformation of Learners in Different 3D Modelling Teaching Strategies.” Computers in Human Behaviour 92: 670–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huk, T. 2006. “Who Benefits from Learning with 3D Models? The Case of Spatial Ability.” Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 22 (6): 392–404. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00180.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ionescu, T. 2012. “Exploring the Nature of Cognitive Flexibility.” New Ideas in Psychology 30 (2): 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2011.11.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isen, A. M. 2002. “A Role for Neuropsychology in Understanding the Facilitating Influence of Positive Affect on Social Behaviour and Cognitive Processes.” In Handbook of Positive Psychology, edited by C.R. Snyder and S.J. Lopez, 528–540. New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• ISTE, 2015. Computational Thinking for All. https://iste.org/blog/computational-thinking-for-all.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, S., and G. Burnett. 2008, “Spatial Ability and Learning to Programme.” Human Technology: An Interdisciplinary Journal on Humans in ICT Environments 4 (1): 47–61. https://doi.org/10.17011/ht/urn.200804151352.
   Google Scholar
• Juškevičienė, A. 2020. ”Developing Algorithmic Thinking Through Computational Making.” Data Science: New Issues, Challenges, and Applications, edited by G. Dzemyda, J. Bernatavičienė, and J. Kacprzyk, 86, 183–197. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39250-5_10.
   Google Scholar
• Karaismailoglu, F., and M. Yildirim. 2023. “The Effect of 3D Modelling Performed Using Tinkercad or Concrete Materials in the Context of the Flipped Classroom on Pre-Service Teachers’ Spatial Abilities.” Research in Science & Technological Education 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2023.2223134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman, S. B. 2007. “Sex Differences in Mental Rotation and Spatial Visualisation Ability: Can They Be Accounted for by Differences in Working Memory Capacity?” Intelligence 35 (3): 211–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazu, H., and S. Pullu. 2023. “Cognitive Flexibility Levels and Self-Efficacy Perceptions of Preservice Teachers.” Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education 14 (1): 36–47. https://doi.org/10.2478/dcse-2023-0004.
   Google Scholar
• Korkmaz, Ö., R. Çakir, and M. Y. Özden. 2017. “A Validity and Reliability Study of the Computational Thinking Scales (CTS).” Computers in Human Behaviour 72: 558–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Küçük, M., T. Talan, and M. Demirbilek. 2023, “The Effect of Creating 3D Objects with Block Codes on Spatial and Computational Thinking Skills.” Informatics in Education. https://doi.org/10.15388/infedu.2024.02.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, J., and R. Bednarz. 2009, “Effect of GIS Learning on Spatial Thinking.” Journal of Geography in Higher Education 33 (2): 183–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098260802276714.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, D., and T. Kim. 2019. “The Effect of Integrative Education Using a 3d Printer on the Computational Thinking Ability of Elementary School Students.” Journal of the Korean Association of Information Ecucation 23 (5): 469–480.
   Google Scholar
• Linn, M. C., and A. C. Petersen. 1985. “Emergence and Characterization of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability: A Meta-Analysis.” Child Development 56 (6): 1479–1498. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Y., A. H. Schoenfeld, A. A. diSessa, A. C. Graesser, L. C. Benson, L. D. English, and R. A. Duschl. 2019. “Design and Design Thinking in STEM Education.” Journal for STEM Education Research 2 (2): 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41979-019-00020-z.
   Google Scholar
• Lohman, D. F. (1996).“Spatial ability and G.“ In Human abilities: Their nature and assessment. , edited by I. Dennis and P. Tapsfield, 97–116. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Lubinski, D. (2010). “Spatial Ability and STEM: A Sleeping Giant for Talent Identification and Development.” Personality and Individual Differences 49 (4): 344–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, M. M. ve Anderson, and C. M. 1998. “The Cognitive Flexibility Scale: Three Validity Studies.” Communication Reports 11 (1): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/08934219809367680.
   Google Scholar
• Martin, M. M., and R. B. Rubin. 1995. “A New Measure of Cognitive Flexibility.” Psychological Reports 76 (2): 623–626. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1995.76.2.623.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mertler, C. A. 2009. Action Research Teachers as Researchers in the Classroom, 87, p. 89. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Micallef, J. 2015. “Begin with a Box.” In Beginning Design for 3D Printing, edited by J. Micallef, 67–89. Berkeley, CA: Apress. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-0946-2_3.
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council, 2011. Report of a Workshop on the Pedagogical Aspects of Computational Thinking. National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Newcombe, N. S. 2010. “Picture This: Increasing Math and Science Learning by Improving Spatial Thinking.” American Educator 34 (2): 29.
   Google Scholar
• Palmiero, M., and N. Srinivasan. 2015. ”Creativity and Spatial Ability: A Critical Evaluation.” Cognition, Experience, and Creativity, edited by J. Manjaly and B. Indurkhya, 189–214. New Delhi, India: Orient Blackswan.
   Google Scholar
• Papp, I., R. Tornai, and M. Zichar. 2016, October. “What 3D Technologies Can Bring to Education: The Impacts of Acquiring a 3D Printer.” In the 2016 7th IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications (CogInfoCom), Wroclaw, Poland, 000257–000262. IEEE.
   Google Scholar
• Pellas, N., and S. Vosinakis. 2018. “The Effect of Simulation Games on Learning Computer Programming: A Comparative Study on High School Students’ Learning Performance by Assessing Computational Problem-Solving Strategies.” Education and Information Technologies 23 (6): 2423–2452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-018-9724-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontorno, J. 2022. “Spatial Thinking and Strategy Use: ANew Perspective with Eyetracking Data (Order No. 29207461).” Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2695391003). St. John’s University (New York). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/spatial-thinking-strategy-use-new-perspective/docview/2695391003/se-2.
   Google Scholar
• Porat, R., and C. Ceobanu. 2023. “Spatial Ability: Understanding the Past, Looking into the Future.” European Proceedings of Educational Sciences 6: 99–108. https://doi.org/10.15405/epes.23056.9.
   Google Scholar
• Pratomo, L. C., and D. K. Wardani. 2021. “The Effectiveness of Design Thinking in Improving Student Creativity Skills and Entrepreneurial Alertness.” International Journal of Instruction 14 (4): 695–712.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reis, S. D., and P. P. Heppner. 1993. “Examination of Coping Resources and Family Adaptation in Mothers and Daughters of Incestuous versus Nonclinical Families.” Journal of Counselling Psychology 40 (1): 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.40.1.100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rico, M., G. Martínez-Muñoz, X. Alaman, D. Camacho, and E. Pulido. 2011. “A Programming Experience of High School Students on a Virtual World Platform.” International Journal of Engineering Education 27 (1): 52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, J., S. Gray, M. Toye, and J. Booth. 2020. “The Relationship Between Executive Functions and Computational Thinking.” International Journal of Computer Science Education in Schools 3 (4): 35–49. https://doi.org/10.21585/ijcses.v3i4.76.
   Google Scholar
• Román-González, M., J. C. Pérez-González, and C. Jiménez-Fernández, 2017. “Which cognitive abilities underlie computational thinking? Critical Validity of the Computational Thinking Test.” Computers in Human Behaviour 72: 678–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Šafhalter, A., K. B. Vukman, and S. Glodež. 2016. “The Effect of 3D-Modelling Training on Students’ Spatial Reasoning Relative to Gender and Grade.” Journal of Educational Computing Research 54 (3): 395–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633115620430.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shipepe, A., L. Uwu-Khaeb, C. De Villiers, I. Jormanainen, and E. Sutinen. 2022. “Co-Learning Computational and Design Thinking Using Educational Robotics: A Case of Primary School Learners in Namibia.” Sensors 22 (21): 8169. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shute, V. J., C. Sun, and J. Asbell-Clarke. 2017. “Demystifying Computational Thinking.” Educational Research Review 22: 142–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.09.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver, J. A., J. D. Hughes, R. A. Bornstein, and D. Q. Beversdorf. 2004. “Effect of Anxiolytics on Cognitive Flexibility in Problem Solving.” Cognitive and Behavioural Neurology 17 (2): 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.wnn.0000119240.65522.d9.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith, S. (2018). “Children’s Negotiations of Visualisation Skills During a Design-Based Learning Experience Using Non-Digital and Digital Techniques.” Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 12 (2): 4. https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1747.
   Google Scholar
• Spiro, R. J., P. J. Feltovich, M. J. Jacobson, and R. L. Coulson. 1992. “Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains.” In Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: Hillsdale, edited by T. M. Duffy and D. Jonassen, 57–80. New Jersey: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Spiro, R., and J. Jehng. 1990. ”Cognitive Flexibility, Random Access Instruction, and Hypertext: Theory and Technology or Non-Linear and Multidimensional Traversal of Complex Subject Matter.” Cognition, Education, and Multimedia: Exploring Ideas in High Technology, editeed by D. Nix and R. Spiro, 163–205. Hillsdale, NJHillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Stieff, M., R. C. Bateman, and D. H. Uttal. 2005. “Teaching and Learning with Three-Dimensional Representations.” In Visualisation in Science Education, edited by J. K. Gilbert, 1, 93–120. Dordrecht: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-3613-2_7.
   Google Scholar
• Sun, L., L. Hu, and D. Zhou. 2021. “Improving 7th-graders’ Computational Thinking Skills Through Unplugged Programming Activities: A Study on the Influence of Multiple Factors.” Thinking Skills and Creativity 42: 100926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100926.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurstone, L. L. 1943. “Primary mental abilities.” Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Uttal, D. H., D. I. Miller, and N. S. Newcombe. 2013. “Exploring and Enhancing Spatial Thinking: Links to Achievement in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics?” Current Directions in Psychological Science 22 (5): 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413484756.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voskoglou, M. G., and S. Buckley. 2012. “Problem Solving and Computational Thinking in a Learning Environment.” Egyptian Computer Science Journal 36 (4): 28–46.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., and V. Chiew. 2010. “On the Cognitive Process of Human Problem Solving.” Cognitive Systems Research 11 (1): 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2008.08.003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, J., and M. Jou, 2023. “The Influence of Mobile-Learning Flipped Classrooms on the Emotional Learning and Cognitive Flexibility of Students of Different Levels of Learning Achievement.” Interactive Learning Environments, 31 (3): 1309–1321. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1830806.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., Y. Wang, S. Patel, and D. Patel. 2006. “A Layered Reference Model of the Brain (LRMB).” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 36 (2): 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSMCC.2006.871126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wing, J. 2014. “Computational Thinking Benefits Society.” Retrieved from http://socialissues.cs.toronto.edu.
   Google Scholar
• Wing, J. M. 2006. “Computational Thinking.” Communications of the ACM 49 (3): 33–35. https://doi.org/10.1145/1118178.1118215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter, J. W., G. Lappan, W. Fitzgerald, and J. Shroyer. 1989. Middle Grades Mathematics Project: Spatial Visualisation. NY: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Yadav, A., H. Hong, and C. Stephenson. 2016. “Computational Thinking for All: Pedagogical Approaches to Embedding 21st Century Problem Solving in K–12 Classrooms.” Tech Trends 60 (6): 565–568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0087-7.
   Google Scholar
• Yıldız Durak, H., and N. Atman Uslu. 2022. “Investigating the Effects of SOLO Taxonomy with Reflective Practice on University students’ Meta-Cognitive Strategies, Problem-Solving, Cognitive Flexibility, and Spatial Anxiety: An Embedded Mixed-Method Study on 3D Game Development.” Interactive Learning Environments 31 (10): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2067187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yildiz, S. G., and A. S. Ozdemir. 2020. “The Effects of Engineering Design Processes on Spatial Abilities of Middle School Students.” International Journal of Technology and Design Education 30 (1): 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-018-9491-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar