Bone mineral density in triathletes over a competitive season

REFERENCES

• Arroll, B. and Beaglehole, R. (1992). Does physical activity lower blood pressure: a critical review of the clinical trials. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 45, 439-447.
   Google Scholar
• Bilanin, J., Blanchard, M. and Pussek-Cohen, E. (1989). Lower vertebral bone density in male long distance runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 66-70.
   Google Scholar
• Clarkson, P.M. and Haymes, E.M. (1995). Exercise and mineral status of athletes: calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 831-843.
   Google Scholar
• Conroy, B-P., Kramer, W.J., Maresh, C.M., Heck, S.J., Stone, M.H., Fry, A.C., Miller P.D. and Dalsky, O.P. (1993). Bone mineral density in elite junior Olympic weightlifters. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 1103-1109.
   Google Scholar
• Dalsky, G.P., Stocke, K.S., Ehsani, A., Slatopolsky, E., Lee, W.C. and Birge, S. (1988). Weight-bearing exercise training and lumbar bone mineral content in postmenopausal women. Annals of Internal Medicine, 108, 824-828.
   Google Scholar
• Dook, J.E., James, C., Henderson, N.K. and Price, R.J. (1997). Exercise and bone mineral density in mature female athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29, 291-296.
   Google Scholar
• Fehling, P.C., Alekel, L., Clasey, J., Rector, A. and Stillman, R.J. (1995). A comparison of bone mineral densities among female athletes in impact loading and active loading sports. Bone, 17, 205-210.
   Google Scholar
• Going, S.B., Massett, M.P., Hall, M.C., Bare, L.A., Root, P.A., Williams, D.P. and Lohman,T.G. (1993).Detection of small changes in body composition by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 57, 1699-1702.
   Google Scholar
• Grimston, S.K., Willows, N.D. and Hanley, D.A. (1993). Mechanical loading regime and its relationship to bone mineral density in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 25, 1203-1210.
   Google Scholar
• Gutin, B. and Kasper, M.J. (1992). Can vigorous exercise play a role in osteoporosis prevention? A review. Osteoporosis International, 2, 55-69.
   Google Scholar
• Hamdy, R.C., Anderson, J.S., Whalen, K.E. and Harvill, L.M. (1994). Regional differences in bone density of young men involved in different exercises. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 884-888.
   Google Scholar
• Heinonen, A., Oja, P., Kannus, P., Sievanen, H., Manttari, A. and Vuori, I. (1993). Bone mineral density of female athletes in different sports. Bone and Mineral, 23, 1-14.
   Google Scholar
• Hetland, M.L., Haarbo, J. and Christiansen, C. (1993). Low bone mass and high bone turnover in male long distance runners. Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 77, 770-775.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, A.W, Weiss, C.B. and Wheeler, D.L. (1994). Stress fractures of the femoral shaft in athletes - more common than expected: a new clinical test. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 248-256.
   Google Scholar
• Kirchner, E.M., Lewis, R.D. and O'Connor, P.J. (1995). Bone mineral density and dietary intake of female college gymnasts. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 543-549.
   Google Scholar
• Klesges, R.C., Ward, K.D., Shelton, M.L., Applegate, W.B., Cantler, E.D., Palmieri, G.M., Harmon, K. and Davis, J. (1996). Changes in bone mineral content in male athletes. Journal of the American Medical Association, 276, 226-230.
   Google Scholar
• Krieder, R.B., Fry, A.C. and O'Toole, M.L. (1998). Overtraining in Sport. Champaign, EL: Human Kinetics.
   Google Scholar
• Lakka, T.A., Venalainen, J.M., Rauramaa, R., Salonen, R., Tuomilehto,J. and Salonen, J.T. (1994). Relation of leisuretime physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness to the risk of acute myocardial infarction in men. New England Journal of Medicine, 330, 1549-1554.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, I.M. and Paffenbarger, R.S. Jr. (1994). Physical activity and its relation to cancer risk: a prospective study of college alumni. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 831-837.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, R.D. and Modlesky, C.M. (1998). Nutrition, physical activity, and bone health in women. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 8, 250-284.
   Google Scholar
• MacDougall, J.D., Webber, C.E. and Martin, J. (1992). Relationship among running mileage, bone density, and serum testosterone in male runners. Journal of Applied Physiology, 73, 1165-1170.
   Google Scholar
• Manson, J.E., Nathan, D.M., Krolewski, A.S., Stampfer, M.J., Willett, W.C. and Hennekens, C.H. (1992). A prospective study of exercise and incidence of diabetes among US male physicians. Journal of the American Medical Association, 268, 63-67.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, J.N. (1994). Exercise in the prevention of coronary heart disease: today's best buy in public health. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 807-814.
   Google Scholar
• Moy, C.S., Songer, T.J., LaPorte, R.E., Dorman, J.S., Kriska, A.M., Orchard, T.J., Becker, DJ. and Drash, A.L. (1993). Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, physical activity, and death. American Journal of Epidemiology, 137, 74-81.
   Google Scholar
• Myburgh, K.H, Hutchins, J., Fataar, A.B., Hough, S.F. and Noakes, J.D. (1990).Low bone density is an etiologic factor for stress fractures in athletes. Annals of Internal Medicine, 113, 754-759.
   Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Health Consensus Conference (1994). Optimal calcium intake. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Optimal Calcium Intake. Journal of the American Medical Association, 272, 1942-1948.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, ME., Fisher, E.C., Dilmanian, F.A., Dallai, G.E. and Evans, W.J. (1991). A 1-y walking program and increased dietary calcium in postmenopausal women: effects on bone. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 53, 1304-1311.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols, D.L., Sanborn, C.F., Bonnick, S.L., Ben-Ezra, V, Gench, B. and DiMarco, N.M. (1994). The effects of gymnastics training on bone mineral density. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 1220-1225.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols, J.F., Spindler, A.A., LaFave, K.L. and Sartoris, DJ. (1995). A comparison of bone mineral density and hormone status of periadolescent gymnasts, swimmers, and controls. Medicine, Exercise, Nutrition and Health, 4, 101-106.
   Google Scholar
• Nilsson, B. and Westline, N. (1971). Bone density in athletes. Clinical Orthopedics, 77, 179.
   Google Scholar
• Orwoll, E.S., Ferar, J., Oviatt, S., McClung, M.R. and Huntington, K. (1989). The relationship of swimming exercise to bone mass in men and women. Archives of Internal Medicine, 149, 2197-2200.
   Google Scholar
• Paffenbarger, RS. Jr., Wing, A.L., Hyde, R.T. and Jung, D.L. (1983). Physical activity and incidence of hypertension in college alumni. American Journal of Epidemiology, 117, 245-257.
   Google Scholar
• Paflenbarger, R.S. Jr., Hyde, R.T., Wing, A.L. and Steinmetz, C.H. (1984). A natural history of athleticism and cardiovascular health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 252, 491-495.
   Google Scholar
• Fate, R.R., Pratt, M., BIaIr, S.N., Haskeil, W.L., Macera, C.A., Bouchard, C., Buchner, D., Ettinger, W., Heath, G.W., King, A.C., Kriska, A., Leon, A.S., Marcus, B.H., Morris, J., Pafienbarger, R.S. Jr., Patrick, K., Pollock, M.L., Rippe, J.M., Sallis, J. and Wilmore, J.H. (1995). Physical activity and public health: a recommendation from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 402-407.
   Google Scholar
• Pedhazur, E.J. (1982). Multiple Regression in Behavioral Research, 2nd edn. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
   Google Scholar
• Pirnay, R., Bodeux, M., Crielaard, J.M. and Franchimont, P. (1987). Bone mineral content and physical activity. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 8, 331-335.
   Google Scholar
• Rico, H., Revilla, M., Hernandez, E.R., Gomez-Castresana, F. and Villa, L.F. (1993a). Bone mineral content and body composition in postpubertal cyclist boys. Bone, 14, 93-95.
   Google Scholar
• Rico, H., Revilla, M., Villa, L.F., Gomez-Castresana, F. and Del Buergo, M.A. (1993b). Body composition in postpubertal boy cyclists. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 33, 278-281.
   Google Scholar
• Riggs, B.L. and Melton, L.J. III. (1986). Involutional osteoporosis. New England Journal of Medicine, 314, 1676-1686.
   Google Scholar
• Risser, W.L., Lee, E.J., Leblanc, A., Poindexter, H.B.W., Risser, J.M.H. and Schneider, V. (1990). Bone density in eumenorrheic female college athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22, 570-574.
   Google Scholar
• Ross, P.D. (1996). Osteoporosis: frequency, consequences, and risk factors. Archives of Internal Medicine, 156, 1399-1411.
   Google Scholar
• Roubenoff, R., Kehayias, J.J., Dawson-Hughes, B. and Heymsfield, S.B. (1993). Use of dual energy X-ray absorptiometry in body composition studies: not yet a 'gold standard'. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 58, 589-591.
   Google Scholar
• Slawson, D.L., McClanahan, B.S., Clemens, L.H., Ward, K.D., Klesges, R.C., Vukadinovich, C.M. and Gantier, E.D. (2001). Food sources of calcium in a sample of African-American and Euro-American collegiate athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 11, 199-208.
   Google Scholar
• Taafie, D.R., Snow-Harter, C., Connolly, D.A., Robinson, T.L. and Marcus, R. (1995). Differential effects of swimming versus weight-bearing activity on bone mineral status of eumenorrheic athletes. Journal of Bone Mineral Research, 10, 586-593.
   Google Scholar