3,892
Views
91
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Promoting training adaptations through nutritional interventions

, &
Pages 709-721 | Accepted 16 Nov 2005, Published online: 19 Aug 2006

References

  • Achten , J. , Halson , S. L. , Moseley , L. , Rayson , M. P. , Casey , A. and Jeukendrup , A. E. 2004 . Higher dietary carbohydrate content during intensified running training results in better maintenance of performance and mood state . Journal of Applied Physiology , 96 : 1331 – 1340 .
  • Åkerstrom , T. C. A. , Wojtaszewski , J. F. P. , Plomgaard , P. and Pedersen , B. K. 2005 . Effect of oral glucose ingestion on endurance training adaptation in human skeletal muscle . Proceedings of the European College of Sport Sciences, OS12-2 , : 76
  • Akimoto , T. , Pohnert , S. C. , Li , P. , Zhang , M. , Gumbs , C. Rosenberg , P. B. 2005 . Exercise stimulates PGC-1α transcription in skeletal muscle through activation of the p38 MAPK pathway . Journal of Biological Chemistry , 280 : 19587 – 19593 .
  • Arkinstall , M. J. , Bruce , C. R. , Nikolopoulos , V. , Garnham , A. P. and Hawley , J. A. 2001 . Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on metabolism during running and cycling . Journal of Applied Physiology , 91 : 2125 – 2134 .
  • Arkinstall , M. J. , Tunstall , R. J. , Cameron-Smith , D. and Hawley , J. A. 2004 . Regulation of metabolic genes in human skeletal muscle by short-term exercise and diet manipulation . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 287 : E25 – E31 .
  • Aronson , D. , Violan , M. A. , Dufresne , S. D. , Zangen , D. , Fielding , R. A. and Goodyear , L. J. 1997 . Exercise stimulates the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in human skeletal muscle . Journal of Clinical Investigation , 99 : 1251 – 1257 .
  • Aschenbach , W. G. , Sakamoto , K. and Goodyear , L. J. 2004 . 5′ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, metabolism and exercise . Sports Medicine , 34 : 91 – 103 .
  • Balsom , P. D. , Wood , K. , Olsson , P. and Ekblom , B. 1999 . Carbohydrate intake and multiple sprint sports: With special reference to football (soccer) . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 20 : 48 – 52 .
  • Baar , K. and Esser , K. 1999 . Phosphorylation of p70(S6k) correlates with increased skeletal muscle mass following resistance exercise . American Journal of Physiology , 276 : C120 – C127 .
  • Baar , K. , Wende , A. R. , Jones , T. E. , Marison , M. , Nolte , L. A. Chen , M. 2002 . Adaptations of skeletal muscle to exercise: Rapid increase in the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1 . FASEB Journal , 16 : 1879 – 1886 .
  • Bangsbo , J. 1994 . The physiology of soccer – with special reference to intense intermittent exercise . Acta Physiologica Scandinavica , 619 ( suppl. ) : 1 – 155 .
  • Barnes , B. R. , Glund , S. , Long , Y. C. , Hjalm , G. , Andersson , L. and Zierath , J. R. 2005 . 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase regulates skeletal muscle glycogen content and ergogenics . FASEB Journal , 19 : 773 – 779 .
  • Bergstrom , J. , Hermansen , L. , Hultman , E. and Saltin , B. 1967 . Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance . Acta Physiologica Scandinavica , 71 : 140 – 150 .
  • Biolo , G. , Maggi , S. P. , Williams , B. D. , Tipton , K. D. and Wolfe , R. R. 1995 . Increased rates of muscle protein turnover and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 268 : E514 – E520 .
  • Biolo , G. , Tipton , K. D. , Klein , S. and Wolfe , R. R. 1997 . An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 273 : 122 – 129 .
  • Bolster , D. R. , Crozier , S. J. , Kimball , S. R. and Jefferson , L. S. 2002 . AMP-activated protein kinase suppresses protein synthesis in rat skeletal muscle through down-regulated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling . Journal of Biological Chemistry , 277 : 23977 – 23980 .
  • Bolster , D. R. , Jefferson , L. S. and Kimball , S. R. 2004 . Regulation of protein synthesis associated with skeletal muscle hypertrophy by insulin-, amino acid- and exercise-induced signalling . Proceedings of the Nutrition Society , 63 : 351 – 356 .
  • Bolster , D. R. , Pikosky , M. A. , Gaine , P. C. , Martin , W. , Wolfe , R. R. Tipton , K. D. 2005 . Dietary protein intake impacts human skeletal muscle protein fractional synthetic rates following endurance exercise . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 289 : E678 – E683 .
  • Booth , F. W. and Thomason , D. B. 1991 . Molecular and cellular adaptation of muscle in response to exercise: Perspectives of various models . Physiological Reviews , 71 : 541 – 585 .
  • Borsheim , E. , Aarsland , A. and Wolfe , R. R. 2004 . Effect of an amino acid, protein, and carbohydrate mixture on net muscle protein balance after resistance exercise . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 14 : 255 – 271 .
  • Borsheim , E. , Tipton , K. D. , Wolf , S. E. and Wolfe , R. R. 2002 . Essential amino acids and muscle protein recovery from resistance exercise . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 283 : E648 – E657 .
  • Burke , L. M. 2003 . The IOC consensus on sports nutrition 2003: New guidelines for nutrition for athletes . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 13 : 549 – 552 .
  • Burke , L. M. , Angus , D. J. , Cox , G. R. , Cummings , N. K. , Febbraio , M. A. Gawthorn , K. 2000 . Effect of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on metabolism and performance during prolonged cycling . Journal of Applied Physiology , 89 : 2413 – 2421 .
  • Burke , L. M. and Hawley , J. A. 2002 . Effects of short-term fat adaptation on metabolism and performance of prolonged exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 34 : 1492 – 1498 .
  • Burke , L. M. , Hawley , J. A. , Angus , D. J. , Cox , G. R. , Clark , S. A. Cummings , N. K. 2002 . Adaptations to short-term high-fat diet persist during exercise despite high carbohydrate availability . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 34 : 83 – 91 .
  • Burke , L. M. , Kiens , B. and Ivy , J. L. 2004 . Carbohydrates and fat for training and recovery . Journal of Sports Sciences , 22 : 15 – 30 .
  • Carling , D. and Hardie , D. G. 1989 . The substrate and sequence specificity of the AMP-activated protein kinase: Phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase kinase . Biochimica Biophysica Acta , 1012 : 81 – 86 .
  • Cameron-Smith , D. , Burke , L. M. , Angus , D. J. , Tunstall , R. J. , Cox , G. R. Bonen , A. 2003 . A short-term, high-fat diet up-regulates lipid metabolism and gene expression in human skeletal muscle . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 77 : 313 – 318 .
  • Carrithers , J. A. , Williamson , D. L. , Gallagher , P. M. , Godard , M. P. , Schulze , K. E. and Trappe , S. W. 2000 . Effects of postexercise carbohydrate – protein feedings on muscle glycogen restoration . Journal of Applied Physiology , 88 : 1976 – 1982 .
  • Chakravarthy , M. V. and Booth , F. W. 2004 . Eating, exercise, and “thrifty” genotypes: Connecting the dots toward an evolutionary understanding of modern chronic diseases . Journal of Applied Physiology , 96 : 3 – 10 .
  • Chan , M. H. , McGee , S. L. , Watt , M. J. , Hargreaves , M. and Febbraio , M. A. 2004 . Altering dietary nutrient intake that reduces glycogen content leads to phosphorylation of nuclear p38 MAP kinase in human skeletal muscle: Association with IL-6 gene transcription during contraction . FASEB Journal , 18 : 1785 – 1787 .
  • Chen , Z. P. , Stephens , T. J. , Murthy , S. , Canny , B. J. , Hargreaves , M. Witters , L. A. 2003 . Effect of exercise intensity on skeletal muscle AMPK signaling in humans . Diabetes , 52 : 2205 – 2212 .
  • Cheng , I. S. , Lee , N. Y. , Liu , K. L. , Liao , S. F. , Huang , C. H. and Kuo , C. H. 2005 . Effect of postexercise carbohydrate supplementation on glucose uptake-associated gene expression in the human skeletal muscle . Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 16 : 267 – 271 .
  • Cheng , S. W. , Fryer , L. G. , Carling , D. and Shepherd , P. R. 2004 . Thr2446 is a novel mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) phosphorylation site regulated by nutrient status . Journal of Biological Chemistry , 279 : 15719 – 15722 .
  • Civitarese , A. E. , Hesselink , M. K. , Russell , A. P. , Ravussin , E. and Schrauwen , P. 2005 . Glucose ingestion during exercise blunts exercise induced gene expression of skeletal muscle fat oxidative genes . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 289 : E1023 – E1029 .
  • Clark , K. 1994 . Nutritional guidance to soccer players for training and competition . Journal of Sports Sciences , 12 : S43 – S50 .
  • Cluberton , L. J. , McGee , S. L. , Murphy , R. M. and Hargreaves , M. 2005 . Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on exercise-induced alterations in metabolic gene expression . Journal of Applied Physiology , 99 : 1359 – 1363 .
  • Costill , D. L. , Sherman , W. M. , Fink , W. J. , Maresh , C. , Witten , M. and Miller , J. M. 1981 . The role of dietary carbohydrates in muscle glycogen resynthesis after strenuous running . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 34 : 1831 – 1836 .
  • Coyle , E. F. 2000 . Physical activity as a metabolic stressor . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 72 : 512S – 520S .
  • Coyle , E. F. , Coggan , A. R. , Hemmert , M. K. and Ivy , J. L. 1986 . Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate . Journal of Applied Physiology , 61 : 165 – 172 .
  • Creer , A. , Gallagher , P. , Slivka , D. , Jemiolo , B. , Fink , W. and Trappe , S. 2005 . Influence of muscle glycogen availability on ERK1/2 and Akt signaling following resistance exercise in human skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 99 : 950 – 956 .
  • Deldicque , L. , Theisen , D. and Francaux , M. 2005 . Regulation of mTOR by amino acids and resistance exercise in skeletal muscle . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 94 : 1 – 10 .
  • Febbraio , M. A. , Steensberg , A. , Walsh , R. , Koukoulas , I. , van Hall , G. and Saltin , B. 2003 . Reduced glycogen availability is associated with an elevation in HSP72 in contracting human skeletal muscle . Journal of Physiology , 538 : 911 – 917 .
  • Frosig , C. , Jorgensen , S. B. , Hardie , D. G. , Richter , E. A. and Wojtaszewski , J. F. 2004 . 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase activity and protein expression are regulated by endurance training in human skeletal muscle . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 286 : E411 – E417 .
  • Fujii , N. , Hayashi , T. , Hirshman , M. F. , Smith , J. T. , Habinowski , S. A. Kaijser , L. 2000 . Exercise induces isoform-specific increase in 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase activity in human skeletal muscle . Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications , 273 : 1150 – 1155 .
  • Glass , D. J. 2003 . Signalling pathways that mediate skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy . Nature Cell Biology , 5 : 87 – 90 .
  • Gollnick , P. D. , Armstrong , R. B. , Saltin , B. , Saubert , C. W. , Sembrowich , W. L. and Shepherd , R. E. 1973 . Effect of training on enzyme activity and fiber composition of human skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 34 : 107 – 111 .
  • Hansen , A. K. , Fischer , C. P. , Plomgaard , P. , Andersen , J. L. , Saltin , B. and Pedersen , B. K. 2005 . Skeletal muscle adaptation: Training twice every second day vs. training once daily . Journal of Applied Physiology , 98 : 93 – 99 .
  • Harber , M. P. , Schenk , S. , Barkham , A. L. and Horowitz , J. F. 2005 . Effects of dietary carbohydrate restriction with high protein intake on protein metabolism and the somatotropic axis . Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism , 90 : 5175 – 5181 .
  • Hardie , D. G. and Hawley , S. A. 2001 . AMP-activated protein kinase: The energy charge hypothesis revisited . Bioessays , 23 : 1112 – 1119 .
  • Hargreaves , M. 1994 . Carbohydrate and lipid requirements of soccer . Journal of Sports Sciences , 12 : S13 – S16 .
  • Hargreaves , M. and Cameron-Smith , D. 2002 . Exercise, diet, and skeletal muscle gene expression . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 34 : 1505 – 1508 .
  • Hawley , J. A. 2002a . Adaptations of skeletal muscle to prolonged, intense endurance training . Clinics in Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology , 29 : 218 – 222 .
  • Hawley , J. A. 2002b . Effect of increased fat availability on metabolism and exercise capacity . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 34 : 1485 – 1491 .
  • Hawley , J. A. , Dennis , S. C. , Lindsay , F. H. and Noakes , T. D. 1995 . Nutritional practices of athletes: Are they sub-optimal? . Journal of Sports Sciences , 13 : S75 – S81 .
  • Hawley , J. A. , Dennis , S. C. and Noakes , T. D. 1994 . Carbohydrate, fluid, and electrolyte requirements of the soccer player: A review . International Journal of Sport Nutrition , 4 : 221 – 236 .
  • Hawley , J. A. and Zierath , J. R. 2004 . Integration of metabolic and mitogenic signal transduction in skeletal muscle . Exercise and Sport Science Reviews , 32 : 4 – 8 .
  • Hayashi , T. , Hirshman , M. F. , Kurth , E. J. , Winder , W. W. and Goodyear , L. J. 1998 . Evidence for 5′ AMP-activated protein kinase mediation of the effect of muscle contraction on glucose transport . Diabetes , 47 : 1369 – 1373 .
  • Hildebrandt , A. L. , Pilegaard , H. and Neufer , P. D. 2003 . Differential transcriptional activation of select metabolic genes in response to variations in exercise intensity and duration . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 285 : E1021 – E1027 .
  • Hood , D. A. 2001 . Invited review: Contractile activity-induced mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 90 : 1137 – 1157 .
  • Ivy , J. L. , Goforth , H. W. , Damon , B. M. , McCauley , T. R. , Parsons , E. C. and Price , T. B. 2002 . Early post-exercise muscle glycogen recovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate-protein supplement . Journal of Applied Physiology , 93 : 1337 – 1344 .
  • Jentjens , R. and Jeukendrup , A. E. 2003 . Determinants of post-exercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery . Sports Medicine , 33 : 117 – 144 .
  • Jentjens , R. L. , van Loon , L. J. , Mann , C. H. , Wagemakers , A. J. and Jeukendrup , A. E. 2001 . Addition of protein and amino acids to carbohydrates does not enhance postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis . Journal of Applied Physiology , 91 : 832 – 846 .
  • Jump , D. B. and Clarke , S. D. 1999 . Regulation of gene expression by dietary fat . Annual Reviews of Nutrition , 19 : 63 – 90 .
  • Karlsson , H. K. , Nilsson , P. A. , Nilsson , J. , Chibalin , A. V. , Zierath , J. R. and Blomstrand , E. 2004 . Branched-chain amino acids increase p70S6k phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle after resistance exercise . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 287 : E1 – E7 .
  • Keller , C. , Steensberg , A. , Pilegaard , H. , Osada , T. , Saltin , B. Pedersen , B. K. 2001 . Transcriptional activation of the IL-6 gene in human contracting skeletal muscle: Influence of muscle glycogen content . FASEB Journal , 15 : 2748 – 2750 .
  • Kimball , S. R. , Farrell , P. A. and Jefferson , L. J. 2002 . Invited review: Role of insulin in translational control of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle by amino acids or exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 93 : 1168 – 1180 .
  • Kirkendall , D. T. 1993 . Effects of nutrition on performance in soccer . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 25 : 1370 – 1374 .
  • Koopman , R. , Pannemans , D. L. E. , Jeukendrup , A. E. , Gijsen , A. P. , Senden , J. M. G. Halliday , D. 2004 . Combined ingestion of protein and carbohydrate improves protein balance during ultra-endurance exercise . American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology & Metabolism , 287 : E712 – E720 .
  • Kraniou , Y. , Cameron-Smith , D. , Misso , M. , Collier , G. and Hargreaves , M. 2000 . Effects of exercise on GLUT-4 and glycogenin gene expression in human skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 88 : 794 – 796 .
  • Lamb , D. R. , Rinehardt , K. F. , Bartels , R. L. , Sherman , W. M. and Snook , J. T. 1990 . Dietary carbohydrate and intensity of interval swim training . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 52 : 1058 – 1063 .
  • Lemon , P. W. 2000 . Beyond the zone: Protein needs of active individuals . Journal of the American College of Nutrition , 19 : 513S – 521S .
  • McInerney , P. , Lessard , S. J. , Burke , L. M. , Coffey , V. G. , Lo Giudice , S. L. Southgate , R. J. 2005 . Failure to repeatedly supercompensate muscle glycogen stores in highly trained men . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 37 : 404 – 411 .
  • Millard-Stafford , M. L. , Cureton , K. J. and Ray , C. A. 1988 . Effect of glucose polymer diet supplement on responses to prolonged successive swimming, cycling and running . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 58 : 327 – 333 .
  • Millard-Stafford , M. L. , Warren , G. L. , Thomas , L. M. , Doyle , J. A. , Snow , T. K. and Hitchcock , K. M. 2005 . Recovery from run training: Efficacy of a carbohydrate-protein beverage? . International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 15 : 610 – 624 .
  • Miller , S. L. , Tipton , K. D. , Chinkes , D. L. , Wolf , S. E. and Wolfe , R. R. 2003 . Independent and combined effects of amino acids and glucose after resistance exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 35 : 449 – 455 .
  • Nader , G. A. and Esser , K. A. 2001 . Intracellular signaling specificity in skeletal muscle in response to different modes of exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 90 : 1936 – 1942 .
  • Nelson , A. G. , Arnall , D. A. , Loy , S. F. , Silvester , L. J. and Conlee , R. K. 1990 . Consequences of combining strength and endurance training regimens . Physical Therapy , 70 : 287 – 294 .
  • Neufer , P. D. and Dohm , G. L. 1993 . Exercise induces a transient increase in transcription of the GLUT-4 gene in skeletal muscle . American Journal of Physiology , 265 : C1597 – C1603 .
  • Nicholas , C. W. , Tsintzas , K. , Boobis , L. and Williams , C. 1999 . Carbohydrate-electrolyte ingestion during intermittent high-intensity running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 31 : 1280 – 1286 .
  • Nielsen , J. N. , Mustard , K. J. , Graham , D. A. , Yu , H. , MacDonald , C. S. Pilegaard , H. 2003 . 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase activity and subunit expression in exercise-trained human skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 94 : 631 – 641 .
  • Phillips , S. M. , Tipton , K. D. , Aarsland , A. , Wolf , S. E. and Wolfe , R. R. 1997 . Mixed muscle protein synthesis and breakdown after resistance exercise in humans . American Journal of Physiology , 273 : E99 – E107 .
  • Pilegaard , H. , Keller , C. , Steensberg , A. , Helge , J. W. , Pedersen , B. K. Saltin , B. 2002 . Influence of pre-exercise muscle glycogen content on exercise-induced transcriptional regulation of metabolic genes . Journal of Physiology , 541 : 261 – 271 .
  • Pilegaard , H. , Ordway , G. A. , Saltin , B. and Neufer , P. D. 2000 . Transcriptional regulation of gene expression in human skeletal muscle during recovery from exercise . American Journal of Physiology , 279 : E806 – E814 .
  • Printen , J. A. , Brady , M. J. and Saltiel , A. R. 1997 . PTG, a protein phosphatase 1-binding protein with a role in glycogen metabolism . Science , 275 : 1475 – 1478 .
  • Proud , C. G. 2002 . Regulation of mammalian translation factors by nutrients . European Journal of Biochemistry , 269 : 5338 – 5349 .
  • Rennie , M. J. and Tipton , K. D. 2000 . Protein and amino acid metabolism during and after exercise and the effects of nutrition . Annual Reviews of Nutrition , 20 : 457 – 483 .
  • Richter , E. A. , Derave , W. and Wojtaszewski , J. F. 2001 . Glucose, exercise and insulin: emerging concepts . Journal of Physiology , 535 : 313 – 322 .
  • Rico-Sanz , J. , Frontera , W. R. , Mole , P. A. , Rivera , M. A. , Rivera-Brown , A. and Meredith , C. N. 1998 . Dietary and performance assessment of elite soccer players during a period of intense training . International Journal of Sport Nutrition , 8 : 230 – 240 .
  • Rico-Sanz , J. , Zehnder , M. , Buchli , R. , Dambach , M. and Boutellier , U. 1999 . Muscle glycogen degradation during simulation of a fatiguing soccer match in elite soccer players examined noninvasively by 13C-MRS . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 31 : 1587 – 1593 .
  • Sakoda , H. , Fujishiro , M. , Shojima , N. , Ogihara , T. , Kushiyama , A. Fukushima , Y. 2005 . Glycogen debranching enzyme association with β-subunit regulates AMP-activated protein kinase activity . American Journal of Physiology , 289 : E474 – E481 .
  • Saunders , M. J. , Kane , M. D. and Todd , M. K. 2004 . Effects of a carbohydrate-protein beverage on cycling endurance and muscle damage . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 36 : 1233 – 1238 .
  • Sherman , W. M. , Doyle , J. A. , Lamb , D. R. and Strauss , R. H. 1993 . Dietary carbohydrate, muscle glycogen, and exercise performance during 7 d of training . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 57 : 27 – 31 .
  • Simonsen , J. C. , Sherman , W. M. , Lamb , D. R. , Dernbach , A. R. , Doyle , J. A. and Strauss , R. 1991 . Dietary carbohydrate, muscle glycogen, and power output during rowing training . Journal of Applied Physiology , 70 : 1500 – 1505 .
  • Stellingwerff , T. , Spriet , L. L. , Watt , M. J. , Kimber , N. E. , Hargreaves , M. Hawley , J. A. 2006 . Decreased PDH ativation and glycogenolysis during exercise following fat adaptation with carbohydrate restoration . American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology & Metabolism , 290 : E380 – E388 .
  • Stepto , N. K. , Carey , A. L. , Staudacher , H. M. , Cummings , N. K. , Burke , L. M. and Hawley , J. A. 2002 . Effect of short-term fat adaptation on high-intensity training . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 34 : 449 – 455 .
  • Terjung , R. L. and Hood , D. A. 1986 . “ Biochemical adaptations in skeletal muscle induced by exercise training ” . In Nutrition and aerobic exercise , Edited by: Layman , D. K. 8 – 27 . Washington, DC : American Chemical Society .
  • Tipton , K. D. , Elliott , T. A. , Cree , M. G. , Wolf , S. E. , Sanford , A. P. and Wolfe , R. R. 2004 . Ingestion of casein and whey proteins result in muscle anabolism after resistance exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 36 : 2073 – 2081 .
  • Tipton , K. D. , Ferrando , A. A. , Phillips , S. M. , Doyle , D. and Wolfe , R. R. 1999 . Postexercise net protein synthesis in human muscle from orally administered amino acids . American Journal of Physiology , 276 : E628 – E634 .
  • Tipton , K. D. , Rasmussen , B. B. , Miller , S. L. , Wolf , S. E. , Owens-Stovall , S. K. Petrini , B. E. 2001 . Timing of amino acid-carbohydrate ingestion alters anabolic response of muscle to resistance exercise . American Journal of Physiology , 281 : E197 – E206 .
  • Tipton , K. D. and Wolfe , R. R. 1998 . Exercise-induced changes in protein metabolism . Acta Physiologica Scandinavica , 162 : 377 – 387 .
  • Tipton , K. D. and Wolfe , R. R. 2004 . Protein and amino acids for athletes . Journal of Sports Sciences , 22 : 65 – 79 .
  • Tunstall , R. J. and Cameron-Smith , D. 2005 . Effect of elevated lipid concentrations on human skeletal muscle gene expression . Metabolism , 54 : 952 – 959 .
  • Van Hall , G. , Shirreffs , S. M. and Calbet , J. A. L. 2000 . Muscle glycogen resynthesis during recovery from cycle exercise: No effect of additional protein ingestion . Journal of Applied Physiology , 88 : 1631 – 1636 .
  • Van Loon , L. J. C. , Saris , W. H. M. , Kruijshoop , M. and Wagenmakers , A. J. M. 2000 . Maximizing postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis: Carbohydrate supplementation and the application of amino acid or protein hydrolysate mixtures . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 72 : 106 – 111 .
  • Volpi , E. , Sheffield-Moore , M. , Rasmussen , B. R. and Wolfe , R. R. 2001 . Basal muscle amino acid kinetics and protein synthesis in healthy young and older men . Journal of the American Medical Association , 286 : 1206 – 1212 .
  • Widegren , U. , Jiang , X. J. , Krook , A. , Chibalin , A. V. , Bjornholm , M. Tally , M. 1998 . Divergent effects of exercise on metabolic and mitogenic signaling pathways in human skeletal muscle . FASEB Journal , 12 : 1379 – 1389 .
  • Widegren , U. , Ryder , J. W. and Zierath , J. R. 2001 . Mitogen-activated protein kinase signal transduction in skeletal muscle: Effects of exercise and muscle contraction . Acta Physiologica Scandinavica , 172 : 227 – 238 .
  • Williams , M. B. , Raven , P. B. , Fogt , D. L. and Ivy , J. L. 2003 . Effects of recovery beverages on glycogen restoration and endurance exercise performance . Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research , 17 : 12 – 19 .
  • Williams , R. S. and Neufer , P. D. 1996 . “ Regulation of gene expression in skeletal muscle by contractile activity ” . In Handbook of physiology. Exercise: Regulation and integration of multiple systems , 1124 – 1150 . Bethesda, MD : American Physiological Society . Section 12
  • Williamson , D. , Gallagher , P. , Harber , M. , Hollon , C. and Trappe , S. 2003 . Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway activation: Effects of age and acute exercise on human skeletal muscle . Journal of Physiology , 547 : 977 – 987 .
  • Winder , W. W. 2001 . Energy-sensing and signaling by AMP-activated protein kinase in skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 91 : 1017 – 1028 .
  • Wojtaszewski , J. F. , MacDonald , C. , Nielsen , J. N. , Hellsten , Y. , Hardie , D. G. Kemp , B. E. 2003 . Regulation of 5′AMP-activated protein kinase activity and substrate utilization in exercising human skeletal muscle . American Journal of Physiology , 284 : E813 – E822 .
  • Wojtaszewski , J. F. , Nielsen , P. , Hansen , B. F. , Richter , E. A. and Kiens , B. 2000 . Isoform-specific and exercise intensity-dependent activation of 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase in human skeletal muscle . Journal of Physiology , 528 : 221 – 226 .
  • Wretman , C. , Lionikas , A. , Widegren , U. , Lannergren , J. , Westerblad , H. and Henriksson , J. 2001 . Effects of concentric and eccentric contractions on phosphorylation of MAPK(ERK1/2) and MAPK(p38) in isolated rat skeletal muscle . Journal of Physiology , 535 : 155 – 164 .
  • Yu , M. , Stepto , N. K. , Chibalin , A. V. , Fryer , L. G. , Carling , D. Krook , A. 2003 . Metabolic and mitogenic signal transduction in human skeletal muscle after intense cycling exercise . Journal of Physiology , 546 : 327 – 335 .
  • Zawadzki , K. M. , Yaspelkis , B. B. and Ivy , J. L. 1992 . Carbohydrate-protein supplement increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage post exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 72 : 1854 – 1859 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.