Nutritional strategies to optimize training and racing in middle-distance athletes

References

• Achten , J. , Halson , S. L. , Moseley , L. , Rayson , M. P. , Casey , A. and Jeukendrup , A. E. 2004 . Higher dietary carbohydrate content during intensified running training results in better maintenance of performance and mood state . Journal of Applied Physiology , 96 : 1331 – 1340 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American College of Sports Medicine . 2000 . Joint Position Statement: Nutrition and athletic performance. American College of Sports Medicine, American Dietetics Association, and Dietitians of Canada . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 32 : 2130 – 2145 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atherton , P. J. , Babraj , J. , Smith , K. , Singh , J. , Rennie , M. J. and Wackerhage , H. 2005 . Selective activation of AMPK-PGC-1alpha or PKB-TSC2-mTOR signaling can explain specific adaptive responses to endurance or resistance training-like electrical muscle stimulation . FASEB Journal , 19 : 786 – 788 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baar , K. 2006 . Training for endurance and strength: Lessons from cell signaling . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 38 : 1939 – 1944 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Begum , G. , Cunliffe , A. and Leveritt , M. 2005 . Physiological role of carnosine in contracting muscle . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 15 : 493 – 514 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berardi , J. M. , Price , T. B. , Noreen , E. E. and Lemon , P. W. 2006 . Postexercise muscle glycogen recovery enhanced with a carbohydrate – protein supplement . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 38 : 1106 – 1113 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergstrom , J. , Hermansen , L. , Hultman , E. and Saltin , B. 1967 . Diet, muscle glycogen and physical performance . Acta Physiologica Scandinavica , 71 : 140 – 150 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burke , L. M. , Collier , G. R. and Hargreaves , M. 1993 . Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: Effect of the glycaemia index of carbohydrate feedings . Journal of Applied Physiology , 75 : 1019 – 1023 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke , L. M. , Cox , G. R. , Cummings , N. K. and Desbrow , B. 2001 . Guidelines for daily carbohydrate intake: Do athletes achieve them? . Sports Medicine , 31 : 267 – 299 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke , L. M. , Kiens , B. and Ivy , J. L. 2004 . Carbohydrates and fat for training and recovery . Journal of Sports Sciences , 22 : 15 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burke , L. M. , Millet , G. and Tarnopolsky , M. A. 2007 . Nutrition for distance events . Journal of Sports Sciences , 25 : S29 – S38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrithers , J. A. , Williamson , D. L. , Gallagher , P. M. , Godard , M. P. , Schulze , K. E. and Trappe , S. W. 2000 . Effects of postexercise carbohydrate – protein feedings on muscle glycogen restoration . Journal of Applied Physiology , 88 : 1976 – 1982 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churchley , E. G. , Coffey , V. G. , Pedersen , D. J. , Shield , A. , Carey , K. A. Cameron-Smith , D. 2007 . Influence of pre-exercise muscle glycogen content on transcriptional activity of metabolic and myogenic genes in well-trained humans . Journal of Applied Physiology , 102 : 1604 – 1611 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coffey , V. G. and Hawley , J. A. 2007 . The molecular basis of training adaptation . Sports Medicine , 37 : 737 – 763 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coggan , A. R. and Coyle , E. F. 1991 . Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: Effects on metabolism and performance . Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews , 19 : 1 – 40 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Costill , D. L. , Bowers , R. , Branam , G. and Sparks , K. 1971 . Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged exercise on successive days . Journal of Applied Physiology , 31 : 834 – 838 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyle , E. F. 2004 . Fluid and fuel intake during exercise . Journal of Sports Sciences , 22 : 39 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creer , A. , Gallagher , P. , Slivka , D. , Jemiolo , B. , Fink , W. and Trappe , S. 2005 . Influence of muscle glycogen availability on ERK1/2 and Akt signaling after resistance exercise in human skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 99 : 950 – 956 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels , J. and Daniels , N. 1992 . Running economy of elite male and elite female runners . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 24 : 483 – 489 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decombaz , J. 2003 . Nutrition and recovery of muscle energy stores after exercise . Sportmedizin und Sporttraumatologie , 51 : 31 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Dill , D. B. , Edwards , H. T. and Talbot , J. H. 1932 . Alkalosis and capacity for work . Journal of Biochemisty , 97 : 1
   Google Scholar
• Douroudos , I. , Fatouros , I. G. , Gourgoulis , V. , Jamurtas , A. Z. , Tsitsios , T. Hatzinikolaou , A. 2006 . Dose-related effects of prolonged NaHCO3 ingestion during high-intensity exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 38 : 1746 – 1753 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gleeson , M. 2002 . Biochemical and immunological markers of over-training . Journal of Sports Science and Medicine , 1 : 31 – 41 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hansen , A. K. , Fischer , C. P. , Plomgaard , P. , Andersen , J. L. , Saltin , B. and Pedersen , B. K. 2005 . Skeletal muscle adaptation: Training twice every second day vs. training once daily . Journal of Applied Physiology , 98 : 93 – 99 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris , R. C. , Ponte , J. , Hill , C. A. , Sale , C. A. , Jones , G. A. Kim , H. J. Effect of 14 and 28 days of β-alanine (Carnosyn™) supplementation on isometric endurance of the knee extensors . Paper presented at the 14th International Biochemistry of Exercise Conference . Seoul, Korea.
   Google Scholar
• Harris , R. C. , Tallon , M. J. , Dunnett , M. , Boobis , L. , Coakley , J. Kim , H. J. 2006b . The absorption of orally supplied beta-alanine and its effect on muscle carnosine synthesis in human vastus lateralis . Amino Acids , 30 : 279 – 289 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawley , J. A. , Gibala , M. J. and Bermon , S. 2007 . Innovations in athletic preparation: Role of substrate availability to modify training adaptation and performance . Journal of Sports Sciences , 25 : S115 – S124 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickson , R. C. 1980 . Interference of strength development by simultaneously training for strength and endurance . European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology , 45 : 255 – 263 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill , C. A. , Harris , R. C. , Kim , H. J. , Harris , B. D. , Sale , C. Boobis , L. H. 2007 . Influence of beta-alanine supplementation on skeletal muscle carnosine concentrations and high intensity cycling capacity . Amino Acids , 32 : 225 – 233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman , J. , Ratamess , N. , Kang , J. , Mangine , G. , Faigenbaum , A. and Stout , J. 2006 . Effect of creatine and beta-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength/power athletes . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 16 : 430 – 446 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holloszy , J. O. and Coyle , E. F. 1984 . Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences . Journal of Applied Physiology , 56 : 831 – 838 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivy , J. L. , Goforth , H. W. Jr. , Damon , B. M. , McCauley , T. R. , Parsons , E. C. and Price , T. B. 2002 . Early postexercise muscle glycogen recovery is enhanced with a carbohydrate – protein supplement . Journal of Applied Physiology , 93 : 1337 – 1344 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivy , J. L. , Katz , A. L. , Cutler , C. L. , Sherman , W. M. and Coyle , E. F. 1988 . Muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise: Effect of time of carbohydrate ingestion . Journal of Applied Physiology , 64 : 1480 – 1485 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koopman , R. , Manders , R. J. , Jonkers , R. A. , Hul , G. B. , Kuipers , H. and van Loon , L. J. 2005 . Intramyocellular lipid and glycogen content are reduced following resistance exercise in untrained healthy males . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 96 : 525 – 534 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levenhagen , D. K. , Gresham , J. D. , Carlson , M. G. , Maron , D. J. , Borel , M. J. and Flakoll , P. J. 2001 . Postexercise nutrient intake timing in humans is critical to recovery of leg glucose and protein homeostasis . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 280 : E982 – E993 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luden , N. D. , Saunders , M. J. and Todd , M. K. 2007 . Postexercise carbohydrate – protein – antioxidant ingestion decreases plasma creatine kinase and muscle soreness . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 17 : 109 – 123 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , D. E. and Coe , P. N. 1991 . Training distance runners , Champaign, IL : Leisure Press .
   Google Scholar
• Matson , L. G. and Tran , Z. V. 1993 . Effects of sodium bicarbonate ingestion on anaerobic performance: A meta-analytic review . International journal of Sport Nutrition , 3 : 2 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan , R. J. , Depiesse , F. and Geyer , H. 2007 . The use of dietary supplements by athlestes . Journal of Sports Sciences , 25 : S103 – S113 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan , R. J. and Greenhaff , P. L. 1991 . “ High intensity exercise performance and acid – base balance: The influence of diet and induced metabolic alkalosis ” . In Advances in nutrition and top sport , Edited by: Brouns , F. 147 – 165 . Basel : Karger .
   Google Scholar
• McNaughton , L. R. 2000 . “ Bicarbonate and citrate ” . In Nutrition in sport , Edited by: Maughan , R. J. 393 – 404 . Oxford : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• McNaughton , L. and Thompson , T. 2001 . Acute versus chronic sodium bicarbonates ingestion and anaerobic work and power output . Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , 41 : 456 – 462 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millard-Stafford , M. , Warren , G. L. , Thomas , L. M. , Doyle , J. A. , Snow , T. and Hitchcock , K. 2005 . Recovery from run training: Efficacy of a carbohydrate – protein beverage? . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 15 : 610 – 624 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onywera , V. O. , Kiplamai , F. K. , Boit , M. K. and Pitsiladis , Y. P. 2004 . Food and macronutrient intake of elite Kenyan distance runners . International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism , 14 : 709 – 719 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osnes , J. B. and Hermansen , L. 1972 . Acid – base balance after maximal exercise of short duration . Journal of Applied Physiology , 32 : 59 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richter , E. A. , Mikines , K. J. , Galbo , H. and Kiens , B. 1989 . Effect of exercise on insulin action in human skeletal muscle . Journal of Applied Physiology , 66 : 876 – 885 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romijn , J. A. , Coyle , E. F. , Sidossis , L. S. , Gastaldelli , A. , Horowitz , J. F. Endert , E. 1993 . Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration . American Journal of Physiology , 265 : E380 – E391 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saltin , B. 1990 . “ Anaerobic capacity – past, present and prospective ” . In Biochemistry of exercise VII , Edited by: Taylor , A. W. , Gollnick , D. , Green , H. J. , Ianuzzo , D. , Metivier , G. and Sutton , J. R. 387 – 412 . Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics .
   Google Scholar
• Saltin , B. , Henriksson , J. , Nygaard , E. , Andersen , P. and Jansson , E. 1977 . Fiber types and metabolic potentials of skeletal muscles in sedentary man and endurance runners . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 301 : 3 – 29 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shirreffs , S. M. , Casa , D. J. and Carter , R. III . 2007 . Fluid needs for training and competition in athletics . Journal of Sports Sciences , 25 : S83 – S91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer , M. R. and Gastin , P. B. 2001 . Energy system contribution during 200- to 1500-m running in highly trained athletes . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 33 : 157 – 162 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stellingwerff , T. , Spriet , L. L. , Watt , M. J. , Kimber , N. E. , Hargreaves , M. Hawley , J. A. 2006 . Decreased PDH activation and glycogenolysis during exercise following fat adaptation with carbohydrate restoration . American Journal of Physiology: Endocrinology and Metabolism , 290 : E380 – E388 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stout , J. R. , Cramer , J. T. , Zoeller , R. F. , Torok , D. , Costa , P. Hoffman , J. R. 2006 . Effects of beta-alanine supplementation on the onset of neuromuscular fatigue and ventilatory threshold in women . Amino Acids , 32 : 381 – 386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stubbs , R. J. , Hughes , D. A. , Johnstone , A. M. , Horgan , G. W. , King , N. and Blundell , J. E. 2004 . A decrease in physical activity affects appetite, energy, and nutrient balance in lean men feeding ad libitum . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 79 : 62 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarnopolsky , M. A. 1999 . “ Protein metabolism in strength and endurance activities ” . In The metabolic basis of performance in exercise and sport , Edited by: Lamb , D. R. and Murray , R. 125 – 164 . Carmel, IN : Cooper Publishing Group .
   Google Scholar
• Tarnopolsky , M. A. , Bosman , M. , Macdonald , J. R. , Vandeputte , D. , Martin , J. and Roy , B. D. 1997 . Postexercise protein – carbohydrate and carbohydrate supplements increase muscle glycogen in men and women . Journal of Applied Physiology , 83 : 1877 – 1883 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tipton , K. D. , Jeukendrup , A. E. and Hespel , P. 2007 . Nutrition for the sprinter . Journal of Sports Sciences , 25 : S5 – S15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tipton , K. D. and Wolfe , R. R. 2004 . Protein and amino acids for athletes . Journal of Sports Sciences , 22 : 65 – 79 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Hall , G. , Shirreffs , S. M. and Calbet , J. A. 2000 . Muscle glycogen resynthesis during recovery from cycle exercise: No effect of additional protein ingestion . Journal of Applied Physiology , 88 : 1631 – 1636 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Loon , L. J. , Kruijshoop , M. , Verhagen , H. , Saris , W. H. and Wagenmakers , A. J. 2000a . Ingestion of protein hydrolysate and amino acid – carbohydrate mixtures increases postexercise plasma insulin responses in men . Journal of Nutrition , 130 : 2508 – 2513 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Loon , L. J. , Saris , W. H. , Kruijshoop , M. and Wagenmakers , A. J. 2000b . Maximizing postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis: Carbohydrate supplementation and the application of amino acid or protein hydrolysate mixtures . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 72 : 106 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watt , M. J. , Heigenhauser , G. J. and Spriet , L. L. 2002 . Intramuscular triacylglycerol utilization in human skeletal muscle during exercise: Is there a controversy? . Journal of Applied Physiology , 93 : 1185 – 1195 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wojtaszewski , J. F. , Nielsen , P. , Kiens , B. and Richter , E. A. 2001 . Regulation of glycogen synthase kinase-3 in human skeletal muscle: Effects of food intake and bicycle exercise . Diabetes , 50 : 265 – 269 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zawadzki , K. M. , Yaspelkis , B. B. III and Ivy , J. L. 1992 . Carbohydrate – protein complex increases the rate of muscle glycogen storage after exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 72 : 1854 – 1859 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoeller , R. F. , Stout , J. R. , O'Kroy , J. A. , Torok , D. J. and Mielke , M. 2007 . Effects of 28 days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on aerobic power, ventilatory and lactate thresholds, and time to exhaustion . Journal of Amino Acids , 33 : 505 – 510 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar