Systematic review of the acute and chronic effects of high-intensity interval training on executive function across the lifespan

References

• *Alves, C. R., Tessaro, V. H., Teixeira, L. A., Murakava, K., Roschel, H., Gualano, B., & Takito, M. Y. (2014). Influence of acute high-intensity aerobic interval exercise bout on selective attention and short-term memory tasks. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 118(1), 63–72. https://doi.org/10.2466/22.06.PMS.118k10w4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, C. E. (2007). Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in the brain and in business. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1118(1), 122–141. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1412.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carro, E., Nuñez, A., Busiguina, S., & Torres-Aleman, I. (2000). Circulating insulin-like growth factor-I mediates effects of exercise on the brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 20(8), 2926–2933. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-08-02926.2000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Prevalence of insufficient physical activity. World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Chang, Y. K., Labban, J. D., Gapin, J. I., & Etnier, J. L. (2012). The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis. Brain Research, 1453, 87–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2012.02.068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Cooper, S. B., Bandelow, S., Nute, M. L., Dring, K. J., Stannard, R. L., Morris, J. G., & Nevill, M. E. (2016). Sprint-based exercise and cognitive function in adolescents. Preventive Medicine Reports, 4, 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.06.004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• *Connolly, L. J., Bailey, S. J., Krustrup, P., Fulford, J., Smietanka, C., & Jones, A. M. (2017). Effects of self-paced interval and continuous training on health markers in women. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(11), 2281–2293. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-017-3715-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Coetsee, C., & Terblanche, E. (2017). The effect of three different exercise training modalities on cognitive and physical function in a healthy older population. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 14(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-017-0183-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper, S. B., Dring, K. J., & Nevill, M. E. (2016). High-intensity intermittent exercise: Effect on young people’s cardiometabolic health and cognition. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 15(4), 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000273
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Costigan, S. A., Eather, N., Plotnikoff, R. C., Hillman, C. H., & Lubans, D. R. (2016). High-intensity interval training for cognitive and mental health in adolescents. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 48(10), 1985–1993. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000993
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, J. C., Marra, C. A., Najafzadeh, M., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2010). The independent contribution of executive functions to health related quality of life in older women. BMC Geriatrics, 10(1), 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2318-10-16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Asteasu, M. L. S., Martinez-Velilla, N., Zambom-Ferraresi, F., Casas-Herrero, Á., & Izquierdo, M. (2017). Role of physical exercise on cognitive function in healthy older adults: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. Ageing Research Reviews, 37, 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2017.05.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Menezes, K. J., Peixoto, C., Nardi, A. E., Carta, M. G., Machado, S., & Veras, A. B. (2016). Dehydroepiandrosterone, its sulfate and cognitive functions. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 12(1), 24–37. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017901612010024
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• *de Sousa, A. F., Medeiros, A. R., Benitez-Flores, S., Del Rosso, S., Stults-Kolehmainen, M., & Boullosa, D. A. (2018). Improvements in attention and cardiac autonomic modulation after a 2-weeks sprint interval training program: A fidelity approach. Frontiers in Physiology, 9, 241. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Dupuy, O., Billaut, F., Raymond, F., Benraiss, A., Theurot, D., Bosquet, L., Fraser, S., & Tremblay, J. (2018). Effect of acute intermittent exercise on cognitive flexibility: The role of exercise intensity. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 2(2), 146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0078-z
   Google Scholar
• *Eather, N., Riley, N., Miller, A., Smith, V., Poole, A., Vincze, L., Morgan, P. J., & Lubans, D. R. (2019). Efficacy and feasibility of HIIT training for university students: The Uni-HIIT RCT. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 22(5), 596–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.11.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eddolls, W. T., McNarry, M. A., Stratton, G., Winn, C. O., & Mackintosh, K. A. (2017). High-intensity interval training interventions in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 47(11), 2363–2374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0753-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etnier, J. L., & Chang, Y. K. (2009). The effect of physical activity on executive function: A brief commentary on definitions, measurement issues, and the current state of the literature. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(4), 469–483. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.4.469
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freitas, D. A., Rocha-Vieira, E., Soares, B. A., Nonato, L. F., Fonseca, S. R., Martins, J. B., Lacerda, A. C., Massensini, A. R., Poortamns, J. R., Meeusen, R., Leite, H. R., & Mendonça, V. A. (2018). High intensity interval training modulates hippocampal oxidative stress, BDNF and inflammatory mediators in rats. Physiology & Behavior, 184, 6–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.10.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gmiat, A., Micielska, K., Kozłowska, M., Flis, D. J., Smaruj, M., Kujach, S., Jaworska, J., Lipińska, P., & Ziemann, E. (2017). The impact of a single bout of high intensity circuit training on myokines‘ concentrations and cognitive functions in women of different age. Physiology & Behavior, 179, 290–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.07.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guiney, H., & Machado, L. (2013). Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(1), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-012-0345-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Hashimoto, T., Tsukamoto, H., Takenaka, S., Olesen, N. D., Petersen, L. G., Sørensen, H., Nielsen, H. B., Secher, N. H., & Ogoh, S. (2018). Maintained exercise-enhanced brain executive function related to cerebral lactate metabolism in men. The FASEB Journal, 32(3), 1417–1427. https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.201700381RR
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaney, J. L., Carroll, D., & Phillips, A. C. (2013). DHEA, DHEA-S and cortisol responses to acute exercise in older adults in relation to exercise training status and sex. Age, 35(2), 395–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-011-9345-y
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heinrich, K. M., Becker, C., Carlisle, T., Gilmore, K., Hauser, J., Frye, J., & Harms, C. A. (2015). High-intensity functional training improves functional movement and body composition among cancer survivors: A pilot study. European Journal of Cancer Care, 24(6), 812–817. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecc.12338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinrich, K. M., Spencer, V., Fehl, N., & Carlos Poston, W. S. (2012). Mission essential fitness: Comparison of functional circuit training to traditional army physical training for active duty military. Military Medicine, 177(10), 1125–1130. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-12-00143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(1), 58. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2298
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh, S. S., Chang, Y. K., Hung, T. M., & Fang, C. L. (2016). The effects of acute resistance exercise on young and older males’ working memory. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 286–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.09.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh, S. S., Huang, C. J., Wu, C. T., Chang, Y. K., & Hung, T. M. (2018). Acute exercise facilitates the N450 inhibition marker and P3 attention marker during stroop test in young and older adults. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(11), 391. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7110391
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, T., Larsen, K. T., Ried‐Larsen, M., Møller, N. C., & Andersen, L. B. (2014). The effects of physical activity and exercise on brain‐derived neurotrophic factor in healthy humans: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hung, C. L., Tseng, J. W., Chao, H. H., Hung, T. M., & Wang, H. S. (2018). Effect of acute exercise mode on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and task switching performance. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 7(10), 301. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm7100301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiménez-García, J. D., Hita-Contreras, F., de la Torre-Cruz, M., Fábrega-Cuadros, R., Aibar-Almazán, A., Cruz-Díaz, D., & Martínez-Amat, A. (2019). Risk of falls in healthy older adults: Benefits of high-intensity interval training using lower body suspension exercises. Journal of Aging & Physical Activity, 27(3), 325–333. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.2018-0190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamijo, K., Hayashi, Y., Sakai, T., Yahiro, T., Tanaka, K., & Nishihira, Y. (2009). Acute effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive function in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 64(3), 356–363. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamijo, K., Khan, N. A., Pontifex, M. B., Scudder, M. R., Drollette, E. S., Raine, L. B., Evans, E. M., Castelli, D. M., & Hillman, C. H. (2012). The relation of adiposity to cognitive control and scholastic achievement in preadolescent children. Obesity, 20(12), 2406–2411. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2012.112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Lambrick, D., Stoner, L., Grigg, R., & Faulkner, J. (2016). Effects of continuous and intermittent exercise on executive function in children aged 8–10 years. Psychophysiology, 53(9), 1335–1342. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12688
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kao, S. C., Westfall, D. R., Soneson, J., Gurd, B., & Hillman, C. H. (2017). Comparison of the acute effects of high‐intensity interval training and continuous aerobic walking on inhibitory control. Psychophysiology, 54(9), 1335–1345. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12889
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kao, S. C., Drollette, E. S., Ritondale, J. P., Khan, N., & Hillman, C. H. (2018). The acute effects of high-intensity interval training and moderate-intensity continuous exercise on declarative memory and inhibitory control. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 38, 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.05.011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kujach, S., Olek, R. A., Byun, K., Suwabe, K., Sitek, E. J., Ziemann, E., Laskowski, R., & Soya, H. (2020). Acute sprint interval exercise increases both cognitive functions and peripheral neurotrophic factors in humans: The possible involvement of lactate. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, 1455. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2019.01455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Kovacevic, A., Fenesi, B., Paolucci, E., & Heisz, J. J. (2020). The effects of aerobic exercise intensity on memory in older adults. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 45(6), 591–600. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2019-0495
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kao, S. C., Cadenas‐Sanchez, C., Shigeta, T. T., Walk, A. M., Chang, Y. K., Pontfiex, M. B., & Hillman, C. H. (2020). A systematic review of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness on P3b. Psychophysiology, 57(7), e13425. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13425
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leahy, A. A., Eather, N., Smith, J. J., Hillman, C. H., Morgan, P. J., Plotnikoff, R. C., Nilsson, M., Costigan, S. A., Noetel, M., & Lubans, D. R. (2019). Feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a teacher-facilitated high-intensity interval training intervention for older adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science, 31(1), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2018-0039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, C. L., Hsu, W. C., & Cheng, C. F. (2018). Physiological adaptations to sprint interval training with matched exercise volume. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 49(1), 86–95. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001083
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, C. L., Kuo, Y. H., & Cheng, C. F. (2018). Acute high-intensity interval cycling improves postprandial lipid metabolism. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 50(8), 1687–1696. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, J. W., O’Connor, H., O’Dwyer, N., & Orr, R. (2017). The effect of acute and chronic exercise on cognitive function and academic performance in adolescents: A systematic review. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 20(9), 841–848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2016.11.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ligeza, T. S., Maciejczyk, M., Kałamała, P., Szygula, Z., & Wyczesany, M. (2018). Moderate-intensity exercise boosts the N2 neural inhibition marker: A randomized and counterbalanced ERP study with precisely controlled exercise intensity. Biological Psychology, 135, 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.04.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipsky, R. H., & Marini, A. M. (2007). Brain‐derived neurotrophic factor in neuronal survival and behavior‐related plasticity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1122(1), 130–143. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1403.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopes, V. P., Vasques, C., Pereira, B., Maia, J. A., & Malina, R. M. (2006). Physical activity patterns during school recess: A study in children 6 to 10 years old. The International Electronic Journal of Health Education, 9, 192–201.
   Google Scholar
• Ludyga, S., Gerber, M., Brand, S., Holsboer‐Trachsler, E., & Pühse, U. (2016). Acute effects of moderate aerobic exercise on specific aspects of executive function in different age and fitness groups: A meta-analysis. Psychophysiology, 53(11), 1611–1626. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12736
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Ludyga, S., Pühse, U., Lucchi, S., Marti, J., & Gerber, M. (2018). Immediate and sustained effects of intermittent exercise on inhibitory control and task-related heart rate variability in adolescents. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 22(1), 96–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.05.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magistretti, P. J., & Allaman, I. (2018). Lactate in the brain: From metabolic end-product to signaling molecule. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 19(4), 235–249. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2018.19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maher, C. G., Moseley, A. M., Sherrington, C., Elkins, M. R., & Herbert, R. D. (2008). A description of the trials, reviews, and practice guidelines indexed in the PEDro database. Physical Therapy, 2008(88), 1068–1077. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20080002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMorris, T., Sproule, J., Turner, A., & Hale, B. J. (2011). Acute, intermediate intensity exercise, and speed and accuracy in working memory tasks: A meta-analytical comparison of effects. Physiology & Behavior, 102(3–4), 421–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.12.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Miller, M. G., Hanson, N., Tennyck, J., & Plantz, K. A comparison of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) volumes on cognitive performance. (2018). Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 3(2), 168–173. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0107-y
   Google Scholar
• Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003–4819-151-4-200908180-00135
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Moreau, D., Kirk, I. J., & Waldie, K. E. (2017). High-intensity training enhances executive function in children in a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Elife, 6, e25062. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.25062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murawska-Cialowicz, E., Wojna, J., & Zuwala-Jagiello, J. (2015). Crossfit training changes brain-derived neurotrophic factor and irisin levels at rest, after wingate and progressive tests, and improves aerobic capacity and body composition of young physically active men and women. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 66(6), 811–821.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nascimento, C. M. C., Pereira, J. R., Pires de Andrade, L., Garuffi, M., Ayan, C., Kerr, D. S., Talib, L. L., Cominetti, M. R., & Stella, F. (2015). Physical exercise improves peripheral BDNF levels and cognitive functions in mild cognitive impairment elderly with different BDNF Val66Met genotypes. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 43(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-140576
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Nicolini, C., Toepp, S., Harasym, D., Michalski, B., Fahnestock, M., Gibala, M. J., & Nelson, A. J. (2019). No changes in corticospinal excitability, biochemical markers, and working memory after six weeks of high‐intensity interval training in sedentary males. Physiological Reports, 7(11), e14140. https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.14140
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Brien, M. W., Johns, J. A., Robinson, S. A., Bungay, A., Mekary, S. A. I. D., & Kimmerly, D. S. (2020). Impact of high-intensity interval training, moderate-intensity continuous training, and resistance training on endothelial function in older adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 52(5), 1057–1067. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponjee, G. A., De, H. R., & Vader, H. L. (1994). Androgen turnover during marathon running. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 26(10), 1274–1277. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199410000-00015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontifex, M. B., Gwizdala, K. L., Weng, T. B., Zhu, D. C., & Voss, M. W. (2018). Cerebral blood flow is not modulated following acute aerobic exercise in preadolescent children. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 134, 44–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.10.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pontifex, M. B., McGowan, A. L., Chandler, M. C., Gwizdala, K. L., Parks, A. C., Fenn, K., & Kamijo, K. (2019). A primer on investigating the after effects of acute bouts of physical activity on cognition. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 40, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.08.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson, M. M., Lowe, V. J., & Nair, K. S. (2018). Increased brain glucose uptake after 12 weeks of aerobic high-intensity interval training in young and older adults. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 103(1), 221–227. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-01571
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rynecki, N. D., Siracuse, B. L., Ippolito, J. A., & Beebe, K. S. (2019). Injuries sustained during high intensity interval training: Are modern fitness trends contributing to increased injury rates? The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 59(7), 1206–1212. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.19.09407-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Schwarck, S., Schmicker, M., Dordevic, M., Rehfeld, K., Müller, N., & Müller, P. (2019). Inter-individual differences in cognitive response to a single bout of physical exercise—A randomized controlled cross-over study. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(8), 1101. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8081101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soga, K., Masaki, H., Gerber, M., & Ludyga, S. (2018). Acute and long-term effects of resistance training on executive function. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 2(2), 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0079-y
   Google Scholar
• *Tsukamoto, H., Suga, T., Takenaka, S., Tanaka, D., Takeuchi, T., Hamaoka, T., Isaka, T., & Hashimoto, T. (2016). Greater impact of acute high-intensity interval exercise on post-exercise executive function compared to moderate-intensity continuous exercise. Physiology & Behavior, 155, 224–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.12.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• *Tottori, N., Morita, N., Ueta, K., & Fujita, S. (2019). Effects of high intensity interval training on executive function in children aged 8–12 years. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(21), 4127. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai, C. L., Wang, C. H., Pan, C. Y., & Chen, F. C. (2015). The effects of long-term resistance exercise on the relationship between neurocognitive performance and GH, IGF-1, and homocysteine levels in the elderly. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9, 23. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.0002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vital, T. M., Stein, A. M., de Melo Coelho, F. G., Arantes, F. J., Teodorov, E., & Santos-Galduroz, R. F. (2014). Physical exercise and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in elderly: A systematic review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 59(2), 234–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2014.04.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voss, M. W., Erickson, K. I., Prakash, R. S., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Alves, H., Szabo, A., Phillips, S. M., Wójcicki, T. R., Mailey, E. L., Olson, E. A., Gothe, N., Vieira-Potter, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Cook, M. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2013). Neurobiological markers of exercise-related brain plasticity in older adults. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 28, 90–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, C. C., Alderman, B., Wu, C. H., Chi, L., Chen, S. R., Chu, I. H., & Chang, Y. K. (2019). Effects of acute aerobic and resistance exercise on cognitive function and salivary cortisol responses. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 41(2), 73–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, S., Allen, R. J., Lee, J. R., & Hsieh, C. E. (2015). Evaluating the developmental trajectory of the episodic buffer component of working memory and its relation to word recognition in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 133, 16–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, S., & Gathercole, S. E. (2013). Working memory deficits in children with reading difficulties: Memory span and dual task coordination. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115(1), 188–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2012.11.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, S., & Gathercole, S. E. (2015). Interference control in children with reading difficulties. Child Neuropsychology, 21(4), 418–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2014.918594
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilke, J., Giesche, F., Klier, K., Vogt, L., Herrmann, E., & Banzer, W. (2019). Acute effects of resistance exercise on cognitive function in healthy adults: A systematic review with multilevel meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 49(6), 905–916. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01085-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhou, L. J., Yang, T., Wei, X., Liu, Y., Xin, W. J., Chen, Y., Pang, R. P., Zang, Y., Li, Y. Y., & Liu, X. G. (2011). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor contributes to spinal long-term potentiation and mechanical hypersensitivity by activation of spinal microglia in rat. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25(2), 322–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2010.09.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar