Age differences in running biomechanics during footstrike between preschool children and adults

References

• Alexander, R. (1989). Optimization and Gaits in the Locomotion of Vertebrates. Physiol Rev, 69(4), 1199–1227. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1989.69.4.1199
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altman, A. R., & Davis, I. S. (2012). A kinematic method for footstrike pattern detection in barefoot and shod runners. Gait Posture, 35(2), 298–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2011.09.104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bérnard, M. R., Harlaar, J., Becher, J. G., Huijing, P. A., & Jaspers, R. T. (2011). Effects of growth on geometry of gastrocnemius muscle in children: A three-dimensional ultrasound analysis. J Anat, 219(3), 388–402. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2011.01402.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borghese, M. M., & Janssen, I. (2019). Duration and intensity of different types of physical activity among children aged 10–13 years. Can J Public Heal, 110(2), 178–186. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-018-0157-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bramble, D. M., & Lieberman, D. E. (2004). Endurance running and the evolution of Homo. Nature, 432(7015), 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan, C. I., & Marsh, R. L. (2001). Effects of long-term exercise on the biomechanical properties of the Achilles tendon of Guinea fowl. J Appl Physiol, 90(1), 164–171. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.2001.90.1.164
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung, R. T. H., Wong, R. Y. L., Chung, T. K. W., Choi, R. T., Leung, W. W. Y., & Shek, D. H. Y. (2017). Relationship between foot strike pattern, running speed, and footwear condition in recreational distance runners. Sport Biomech, 16(2), 238–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2016.1226381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, I. S., Hollander, K., Lieberman, D. E., Ridge, S. T., Sacco, I. C. N., & Wearing, S. C. (2021). Stepping Back to Minimal Footwear: Applications Across the Lifespan. Exerc Sport Sci Rev, 49(4), 228–243. https://doi.org/10.1249/JES.0000000000000263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, I. S., wei, C. T. L., & Wearing, S. C. (2022). Reversing the Mismatch With Forefoot Striking to Reduce Running Injuries. Front Sport Act Living, 4, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.794005
   Google Scholar
• Downing, K. L., Hinkley, T., Timperio, A., Salmon, J., Carver, A., Cliff, D. P., Okely, A. D., & Hesketh, K. D. (2021). Volume and accumulation patterns of physical activity and sedentary time: Longitudinal changes and tracking from early to late childhood. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act, 18(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-021-01105-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Echarri, J. J., & Forriol, F. (2003). The development in footprint morphology in 1851 Congolese children from urban and rural areas, and the relationship between this and wearing shoes. J Pediatr Orthop Part B, 12, 141–146. doi:10.1097/01.bpb.0000049569.52224.57. https://journals.lww.com/jpo-b/Abstract/2003/03000/The_development_in_footprint_morphology_in_1851.12.aspx
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esculier, J. F., Dubois, B., Dionne, C. E., Leblond, J., Roy, . J. S. . (2015). A consensus definition and rating scale for minimalist shoes. J Foot Ankle Res, 8(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13047-015-0094-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Forriol, F., & Pascual, J. (1990). Footprint Analysis Between Three and Seventeen Years of Age. Foot Ankle Int, 11(2), 101–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/107110079001100208
   Google Scholar
• Fortney, V. L. (1983). Kinematics and kinetics of the running pattern of two-,four-, and six-year-old children. Res Q Exerc Sport, 54(2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1983.10605284
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuchi, C. A., Fukuchi, R. K., & Duarte, M. (2019). Effects of walking speed on gait biomechanics in healthy participants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev, 8(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-019-1063-z
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hardy, L. L., King, L., Farrell, L., Macniven, R., & Howlett, S. (2010). Fundamental movement skills among Australian preschool children. J Sci Med Sport, 13(5), 503–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2009.05.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hobara, H., Sato, T., Sakaguchi, M., Sato, T., Nakazawa, K., & Functions, M. (2012). Step Frequency and Lower Extremity Loading During Running. Int J Sport Med, 33(4), 310–313. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1291232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollander, K., De, V. J. E., Venter, R., Sehner, S., Wegscheider, K., Zech, A., Medicine, E., Africa, S., Physiology, E., & Medicine, E. (2018). Foot Strike Patterns Differ Between Children and Adolescents Growing up Barefoot vs. Shod. Int J Sports Med, 39(2), 97–103. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-120344
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollander, K., Riebe, D., Campe, S., Braumann, K. M., & Zech, A. (2014). Effects of footwear on treadmill running biomechanics in preadolescent children. Gait Posture, 40(3), 381–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2014.05.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jewell, C., Boyer, K. A., & Hamill, J. (2017). Do footfall patterns in forefoot runners change over an exhaustive run? J Sports Sci, 35(1), 74–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1156726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, C. D., & Davis, I. S. (2022). What differentiates rearfoot strike runners with low and high vertical load rates? Gait Posture, 96, 149–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2022.05.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller, T. S., Weisberger, A. M., Ray, J. L., Hasan, S. S., Shiavi, R. G., & Spenger, D. M. (1996). Relationship between vertical ground reaction force and speed during walking, slow jogging, and running. Clin Biomech, 11(5), 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/0268-0033(95)00068-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krabak, B. J., Roberts, W. O., Tenforde, A. S., Ackerman, K. E., Adami, P. E., Baggish, A. L., Barrack, M., Cianca, J., Davis, I., D’Hemecourt, P., Fredericson, M., Goldman, J. T., Harrast, M. A., Heiderscheit, B. C., Hollander, K., Kraus, E., Luke, A., Miller, E., Moyer, M., … Wasfy, M. M. (2021). Youth running consensus statement: Minimising risk of injury and illness in youth runners. Br J Sports Med, 55(6), 305–318. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-102518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krabak, B. J., Tenforde, A. S., Davis, I. S., Fredericson, M., Harrast, M. A., D’Hemecourt, P., Luke, A. C., & Roberts, W. O. (2019). Youth Distance Running: Strategies for Training and Injury Reduction. Curr Sports Med Rep, 18(2), 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laliotis, N., Pennie, B. H., Carty, H., & Klenerman, L. (1993). Toddler’s fracture of the calcaneum. Injury, 24(3), 169–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-1383(93)90284-D
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latorre-Román, P. Á., Fernández-Sánchez, M., Moriana-Coronas, F. J., & García-Pinillos, F. (2016). Design and validation of a cardiorespiratory capacity test for preschool children. South African J Res Sport Phys Educ Recreat, 38, 129–137. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC192943
   Google Scholar
• Lichtwark, G. A., & Wilson, A. M. (2008). Optimal muscle fascicle length and tendon stiffness for maximising gastrocnemius efficiency during human walking and running. J Theor Biol, 252(4), 662–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.01.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malvankar, S., & Khan, W. S. (2011). Evolution of the Achilles tendon: The athlete’s Achilles heel? Foot, 21(4), 193–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foot.2011.08.004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCarthy, C., Fleming, N., Donne, B., & Blanksby, B. (2015). Barefoot running and Hip kinematics: Good news for the knee? Med Sci Sports Exerc, 47(5), 1009–1016. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000505
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, U. (2006). A note on the power of Fisher’s least significant difference procedure. Pharm Stat, 5(4), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/pst.210
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizushima, J., Keogh, J. W. L., Maeda, K., Shibata, A., Kaneko, J., Ohyama-Byun, K., & Ogata, M. (2021). Long-term effects of school barefoot running program on sprinting biomechanics in children: A case-control study. Gait Posture, 83, 9–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2020.09.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plesek, J., Freedman Silvernail, J., Hamill, J., & Jandacka, D. (2021). Running Footstrike Patterns and Footwear in Habitually Shod Preschool Children. Med Sci Sport Exerc, 53(8), 1630–1637. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plesek, J., Hamill, J., Blaschova, D., Freedman-Silvernail, J., & Jandacka, D. (2022). Acute effects of footwear on running impact loading in the preschool years. Sport Biomech, 00, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2022.2058599
   Google Scholar
• Quinlan, S., Sinclair, P., Hunt, A., & Yan, A. F. (2022). The long-term effects of wearing moderate minimalist shoes on a child’s foot strength, muscle structure and balance: A randomised controlled trial. Gait Posture, 92, 371–377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2021.12.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao, U. B., & Joseph, B. (1992). The Influence of Footwear on the Prevalence of Flat Foot: A Survey of 2300 Children. J Bone Jt Surg, 74(4), 525–527. https://doi.org/10.1302/0301-620X.74B4.1624509
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice, H. M., Jamison, S. T., & Davis, I. S. (2016). Footwear Matters: Influence of Footwear and Foot Strike on Load Rates during Running. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 48(12), 2462–2468. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000001030
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawilowsky, S. S. (2009). New Effect Size Rules of Thumb. J Mod Appl Stat Methods, 8(2), 597–599. https://doi.org/10.22237/jmasm/1257035100
   Google Scholar
• Starshak, R. J., Simons, G. W., & Sty, J. R. (1984). Occult fracture of the calcaneus - another toddler´s fracture. Pediatr Radiol, 14(1), 37–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02386729
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tam, N., Tucker, R., & Astephen Wilson, J. L. (2016). Individual Responses to a Barefoot Running Program. Am J Sports Med, 44(3), 777–784. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515620584
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uden, H., Scharfbillig, R., & Causby, R. (2017). The typically developing paediatric foot: How flat should it be? A systematic review. J Foot Ankle Res, 10(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13047-017-0218-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walther, M., Herold, D., Sinderhauf, A., & Morrison, R. (2008). Children sport shoes-A systematic review of current literature. Foot Ankle Surg, 14(4), 180–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fas.2008.04.001
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wei, R. X. Y., Chan, Z. Y. S., Zhang, J. H. W., Shum, G. L., Chen, C. Y., & Cheung, R. T. H. (2021). Difference in the running biomechanics between preschoolers and adults. Brazilian J Phys Ther, 25, 162–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjpt.2020.05.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wille, C. M., Lenhart, R. L., Wang, S., Thelen, D. G., & Heiderscheit, B. C. (2014). Ability of sagittal kinematic variables to estimate ground reaction forces and joint kinetics in running. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 44(10), 825–830. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2014.5367
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, A. P., Imai, S., McMillan, A. G., Swift, D., & DuBose, K. D. (2020). Physical activity types and motor skills in 3-5-year old children: National Youth Fitness Survey. J Sci Med Sport, 23(4), 390–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2019.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zech, A., Venter, R., de Villiers, J. E., Sehner, S., Wegscheider, K., & Hollander, K. (2018). Motor skills of children and adolescents are influenced by growing up barefoot or shod. Front Pediatr, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2018.00115
   Google Scholar
• Zeininger, A., Schmitt, D., Jensen, J. L., & Shapiro, L. J. (2018). Ontogenetic changes in foot strike pattern and calcaneal loading during walking in young children. Gait Posture, 59, 18–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.09.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar