Applying a systems thinking lens to anti-doping: A systematic review identifying the contributory factors to doping in sport

References

• Abson, D. J., Fischer, J., Leventon, J., Newig, J., Schomerus, T., Vilsmaier, U., von Wehrden, H., Abernethy, P., Ives, C. D., Jager, N. W., & Lang, D. J. (2017). Leverage points for sustainability transformation. Ambio, 46(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0800-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anawalt, B. D. (2018). Detection of anabolic androgenic steroid use by elite athletes and by members of the general public. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 464, 21–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubel, O., Lefèvre, B., Le Goff, J.-M., & Taverna, N. (2018). Doping risk and career turning points in male elite road cycling (2005–2016). Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 21(10), 994–998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2018.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubel, O., Lefèvre, B., Le Goff, J. M., & Taverna, N. (2019). The team effect on doping in professional male road cycling (2005–2016). Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 29(4), 615–622. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13384
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubel, O., & Ohl, F. (2014). An alternative approach to the prevention of doping in cycling. International Journal of Drug Policy, 25(6), 1094–1102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.08.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Australian Transport Safety Bureau. (2008). Analysis, causality and proof in safety investigations Aviation Research and analysis report AR-2007-053. Australian Transport Safety Bureau.
   Google Scholar
• Backhouse, S. H., Griffiths, C., & McKenna, J. (2018). Tackling doping in sport: A call to take action on the dopogenic environment. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(23), 1485–1486. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-097169
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backhouse, S., Whitaker, L., Patterson, L., Erickson, K., & McKenna, J. (2016). Social psychology of doping in sport: A mixed studies narrative synthesis.
   Google Scholar
• Backhouse, S., Whitaker, L., & Petróczi, A. (2013). Gateway to doping? Supplement use in the context of preferred competitive situations, doping attitude, beliefs, and norms. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 23(2), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01374.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bae, M., Yoon, J., Kang, H., & Kim, T. (2017). Influences of perfectionism and motivational climate on attitudes towards doping among Korean national athletes: A cross sectional study. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 12(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-017-0138-x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., Lucidi, F., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2015). Nutritional supplement and doping use in sport: Possible underlying social cognitive processes. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 25(6), e582–e588. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., Ourda, D., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2020). Are nutritional supplements a gateway to doping use in competitive team sports? The roles of achievement goals and motivational regulations. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 23(6), 625–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2019.12.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilard, J., Ninot, G., & Hauw, D. (2011). Motives for illicit use of doping substances among athletes calling a national antidoping phone-help service: An exploratory study. Substance Use & Misuse, 46(4), 359–367. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2010.502553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bittencourt, N. F., Meeuwisse, W., Mendonça, L., Nettel-Aguirre, A., Ocarino, J., & Fonseca, S. (2016). Complex systems approach for sports injuries: Moving from risk factor identification to injury pattern recognition—narrative review and new concept. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(21), 1309–1314. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2015-095850
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank, C., Kopp, M., Niedermeier, M., Schnitzer, M., & Schobersberger, W. (2016). Predictors of doping intentions, susceptibility, and behaviour of elite athletes: A meta-analytic review. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1333. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3000-0
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bloodworth, A., & McNamee, M. (2010). Clean Olympians? Doping and anti-doping: The views of talented young British athletes. International Journal of Drug Policy, 21(4), 276–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.11.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boardley, I. D., Grix, J., & Harkin, J. (2015). Doping in team and individual sports: A qualitative investigation of moral disengagement and associated processes. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise & Health, 7(5), 698–717. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2014.992039
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boardley, I. D., Smith, A. L., Ntoumanis, N., Gucciardi, D. F., & Harris, T. S. (2019). Perceptions of coach doping confrontation efficacy and athlete susceptibility to intentional and inadvertent doping. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 29(10), 1647–1654. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13489
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassano-Piche, A. L., Vicente, K. J., & Jamieson, G. A. (2009). A test of Rasmussen’s risk management framework in the food safety domain: BSE in the UK. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 10(4), 283–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639220802059232
   Google Scholar
• Chan, D. K., Hardcastle, S. J., Lentillon-Kaestner, V., Donovan, R. J., Dimmock, J. A., & Hagger, M. S. (2014). Athletes’ beliefs about and attitudes towards taking banned performance-enhancing substances: A qualitative study. Sport, Exercise, & Performance Psychology, 3(4), 241. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, Z., Wang, D., Wang, K., & Huang, T. (2017). Coaching style and attitudes toward doping in Chinese athletes: The mediating role of moral disengagement. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 12(3), 312–318. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954117710505
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clacy, A., Goode, N., Sharman, R., Lovell, G. P., & Salmon, P. (2019). A systems approach to understanding the identification and treatment of sport-related concussion in community rugby union. Applied Ergonomics, 80, 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2017.06.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor, J. M. (2013). Towards a sociology of drugs in sport. In Towards a social science of drugs in sport (pp. 55–71). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430802673676
   Google Scholar
• Dekker, S., Cilliers, P., & Hofmeyr, J.-H. (2011). The complexity of failure: Implications of complexity theory for safety investigations. Safety Science, 49(6), 939–945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2011.01.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devcic, S., Bednarik, J., Maric, D., Versic, S., Sekulic, D., Kutlesa, Z., Bianco, A., Rodek, J., & Liposek, S. (2018). Identification of factors associated with potential doping behavior in sports: A cross-sectional analysis in high-level competitive swimmers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(8), 1720. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Didymus, F. F., & Backhouse, S. H. (2020). Coping by doping? A qualitative inquiry into permitted and prohibited substance use in competitive rugby. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 49, 101680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101680
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelberg, T., Moston, S., & Skinner, J. (2015). The final frontier of anti-doping: A study of athletes who have committed doping violations. Sport Management Review, 18(2), 268–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2014.06.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erickson, K., McKenna, J., & Backhouse, S. H. (2015). A qualitative analysis of the factors that protect athletes against doping in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16, 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.03.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fincoeur, B., Cunningham, R., & Ohl, F. (2018). I'm a poor lonesome rider. Help! I could dope. Performance Enhancement & Health, 6(2), 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2018.07.003
   Google Scholar
• García-Grimau, E., De la Vega, R., De Arce, R., & Casado, A. (2021). Attitudes toward and susceptibility to doping in Spanish elite and national-standard track and field athletes: An examination of the sport drug control model. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 679001. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.679001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerche, A. L., & Brosnan, M. J. (2017). Cardiovascular effects of performance-enhancing drugs. Circulation, 135(1), 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.022535
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gleaves, J., Petróczi, A., Folkerts, D., de Hon, O., Macedo, E., Saugy, M., & Cruyff, M. (2021). Doping prevalence in competitive sport: Evidence synthesis with “best practice” recommendations and reporting guidelines from the WADA Working Group on doping prevalence. Sports Medicine, 51(9), 1909–1934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01477-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory, A. J., & Fitch, R. W. (2007). Sports medicine: Performance-enhancing drugs. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 54(4), 797–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2007.07.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gwet, K. L. (2008). Computing inter-rater reliability and its variance in the presence of high agreement. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 61(1), 29–48. https://doi.org/10.1348/000711006X126600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harcourt, P. R., Marclay, F., & Clothier, B. (2014). A forensic perspective of the AFL investigation into peptides: An antidoping investigation case study. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(10), 810–813. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2014-093531
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harcourt, P. R., Unglik, H., & Cook, J. L. (2012). A strategy to reduce illicit drug use is effective in elite Australian football. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 46(13), 943–945. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091329
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, S., Dowling, M., & Houlihan, B. (2021). An analysis of governance failure and power dynamics in international sport: The Russian doping scandal. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 13(3), 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2021.1898443
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauw, D., & Mohamed, S. (2015). Patterns in the situated activity of substance use in the careers of elite doping athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16, 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.09.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heikkala, J. (1993). Modernity, morality, and the logic of competing. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 28(4), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/101269029302800402
   Google Scholar
• Henning, A., McLean, K., Andreasson, J., & Dimeo, P. (2021). Risk and enabling environments in sport: Systematic doping as harm reduction. International Journal of Drug Policy, 91, 102897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102897
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, Q. N., Fàbregues, S., Bartlett, G., Boardman, F., Cargo, M., Dagenais, P., Gagnon, M.-P., Griffiths, F., Nicolau, B., O’Cathain, A., Rousseau, M.-C., Vedel, I., & Pluye, P. (2018). The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 for information professionals and researchers. Education for Information, 34(4), 285–291. https://doi.org/10.3233/EFI-180221
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houlihan, B., & Vidar Hanstad, D. (2019). The effectiveness of the world anti-doping agency: Developing a framework for analysis. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 11(2), 203–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2018.1534257
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulme, A., Salmon, P. M., Nielsen, R. O., Read, G. J., & Finch, C. (2017). From control to causation: Validating a ‘complex systems model’ of running-related injury development and prevention. Applied Ergonomics, 65, 345–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2017.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulme, A., Stanton, N. A., Walker, G. H., Waterson, P., & Salmon, P. M. (2019). What do applications of systems thinking accident analysis methods tell us about accident causation? A systematic review of applications between 1990 and 2018. Safety Science, 117, 164–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2019.04.016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulme, A., Thompson, J., Nielsen, R. O., Read, G. J., & Salmon, P. M. (2019). Towards a complex systems approach in sports injury research: Simulating running-related injury development with agent-based modelling. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(9), 560–569. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-098871
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurst, P., Kavussanu, M., Boardley, I., & Ring, C. (2019). Sport supplement use predicts doping attitudes and likelihood via sport supplement beliefs. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(15), 1734–1740. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1589920
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurst, P., Ring, C., & Kavussanu, M. (2021). Athletes using ergogenic and medical sport supplements report more favourable attitudes to doping than non-users. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 24(3), 307–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2020.09.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huybers, T., & Mazanov, J. (2012). What would Kim do: A choice study of projected athlete doping considerations. Journal of Sport Management, 26(4), 322–334. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.26.4.322
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalleh, G., Donovan, R. J., & Jobling, I. (2014). Predicting attitude towards performance enhancing substance use: A comprehensive test of the sport drug control model with elite Australian athletes. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 17(6), 574–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2013.10.249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, M. B. (2011). A systemic model of doping behavior. The American Journal of Psychology, 124(2), 151–162. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.124.2.0151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabiri, S., Masoomeh (Shamila) Shadmanfaat, S., Donner, C. M., & Cochran, J. K. (2021). An integrated model of athletes’ PED use: A test of low self-control, opportunity, deviant peer associations, and control deficit. Deviant Behavior, 42(10), 1313–1328. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2020.1738986
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kabiri, S., Shadmanfaat, S. M., & Donner, C. M. (2020). Examining the effect of ineffective parenting and low self-control on athletes’ PED use. International Criminal Justice Review, 30(4), 421–447. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057567719832354
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kegelaers, J., Wylleman, P., De Brandt, K., Van Rossem, N., & Rosier, N. (2018). Incentives and deterrents for drug-taking behaviour in elite sports: A holistic and developmental approach. European Sport Management Quarterly, 18(1), 112–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2017.1384505
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, K., Moran, A., & Guerin, S. (2014). A qualitative analysis of the experiences of elite athletes who have admitted to doping for performance enhancement. In Anti-doping: Policy and governance (pp. 57–76). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2011.577081
   Google Scholar
• Kleiderman, E., Thompson, R., Borry, P., Boily, A., & Knoppers, B. M. (2020). Doping controls and the ‘mature minor’ elite athlete: Towards clarification? International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 12(1), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2019.1680416
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolliari-Turner, A., Oliver, B., Lima, G., Mills, J. P., Wang, G., Pitsiladis, Y., & Guppy, F. M. (2021). Doping practices in international weightlifting: Analysis of sanctioned athletes/support personnel from 2008 to 2019 and retesting of samples from the 2008 and 2012 Olympic Games. Sports Medicine-Open, 7(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-020-00293-4
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kondric, M., Sekulic, D., Petroczi, A., Ostojic, L., Rodek, J., & Ostojic, Z. (2011). Is there a danger for myopia in anti-doping education? Comparative analysis of substance use and misuse in Olympic racket sports calls for a broader approach. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 6(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-6-27
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lentillon‐Kaestner, V. (2013). The development of doping use in high‐level cycling: From team‐organized doping to advances in the fight against doping. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 23(2), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01370.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lentillon‐Kaestner, V., & Carstairs, C. (2010). Doping use among young elite cyclists: A qualitative psychosociological approach. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(2), 336–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00885.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lentillon‐Kaestner, V., Hagger, M. S., & Hardcastle, S. (2012). Health and doping in elite‐level cycling. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 22(5), 596–606. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01281.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liposek, S., Zenic, N., Saavedra, J. M., Sekulic, D., Rodek, J., Marinsek, M., & Sajber, D. (2018). Examination of factors explaining coaching strategy and training methodology as correlates of potential doping behavior in high-level swimming. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 17(1), 82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucidi, F., Zelli, A., & Mallia, L. (2013). The contribution of moral disengagement to adolescents’ use of doping substances. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 44(6), 493–514.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matosic, D., Ntoumanis, N., Boardley, I. D., Stenling, A., & Sedikides, C. (2016). Linking narcissism, motivation, and doping attitudes in sport: A multilevel investigation involving coaches and athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(6), 556–566. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazanov, J., Backhouse, S., Connor, J., Hemphill, D., & Quirk, F. (2014). Athlete support personnel and anti‐doping: Knowledge, attitudes, and ethical stance. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(5), 846–856. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12084
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazanov, J., & Huybers, T. (2010). An empirical model of athlete decisions to use performance‐enhancing drugs: qualitative evidence. Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, 2(3), 385–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/19398441.2010.517046
   Google Scholar
• Mazanov, J., Huybers, T., & Connor, J. (2011). Qualitative evidence of a primary intervention point for elite athlete doping. Journal of Science & Medicine in Sport, 14(2), 106–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2010.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIlroy, R. C., Plant, K., Hoque, M. S., Wu, J., Kokwaro, G., Nam, V., & Stanton, N. (2019). Who is responsible for global road safety? A cross-cultural comparison of Actor Maps. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 122, 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2018.09.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, S., Coventon, L., Finch, C. F., Dallat, C., Carden, T., & Salmon, P. M. (2022). Evaluation of a systems ergonomics-based incident reporting system. Applied Ergonomics, 100, 103651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103651
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, S., Naughton, M., Kerhervé, H., & Salmon, P. M. (2023). From anti-doping-I to anti-doping-II: Toward a paradigm shift for doping prevention in sport. International Journal of Drug Policy, 115, 104019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meadows, D. (1999). Leverage points. Places to Intervene in a System, 19, 28.
   Google Scholar
• Momaya, A., Fawal, M., & Estes, R. (2015). Performance-enhancing substances in sports: A review of the literature. Sports Medicine, 45(4), 517–531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0308-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morente-Sánchez, J., Mateo-March, M., Zabala, M., & Taffe, M. (2013). Attitudes towards doping and related experience in Spanish national cycling teams according to different Olympic disciplines. PLoS One, 8(8), e70999. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070999
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray, J., Van de Rijt, A., & Shandra, J. M. (2013). Why they juice: The role of social forces in performance enhancing drug use by professional athletes. Sociological Focus, 46(4), 281–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2013.825832
   Google Scholar
• Nayak, R., & Waterson, P. (2016). ‘When food kills’: A socio-technical systems analysis of the UK Pennington 1996 and 2005 E. coli O157 outbreak reports. Safety Science, 86, 36–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2016.02.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newnam, S., & Goode, N. (2015). Do not blame the driver: A systems analysis of the causes of road freight crashes. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 76, 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2015.01.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls, A. R., Levy, A. R., Meir, R., Sanctuary, C., Jones, L., Baghurst, T., Thompson, M. A., & Perry, J. L. (2020). The susceptibles, chancers, pragmatists, and fair players: An examination of the sport drug control model for adolescent athletes, cluster effects, and norm values among adolescent athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1564. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholls, A. R., Perry, J. L., Levy, A. R., Meir, R., Jones, L., Baghurst, T., Sanctuary, C., & Thompson, M. A. (2014). Coach perceptions of performance enhancement in adolescence: The sport drug control model for adolescent athletes. Performance Enhancement & Health, 3(2), 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2015.07.001
   Google Scholar
• Ntoumanis, N., Barkoukis, V., Gucciardi, D. F., & Chan, D. K. C. (2017). Linking coach interpersonal style with athlete doping intentions and doping use: A prospective study. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 39(3), 188–198. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0243
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ntoumanis, N., Ng, J. Y., Barkoukis, V., & Backhouse, S. (2014). Personal and psychosocial predictors of doping use in physical activity settings: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 44(11), 1603–1624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0240-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ottino, J. M. (2003). Complex systems. American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE Journal, 49(2), 292. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690490202
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., … Whiting, P. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. International Journal of Surgery, 88, 105906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2021.105906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pappa, E., & Kennedy, E. (2013). ‘It was my thought … he made it a reality’: Normalization and responsibility in athletes’ accounts of performance-enhancing drug use. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 48(3), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690212442116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, L. B., Backhouse, S. H., & Duffy, P. J. (2016). Anti-doping education for coaches: Qualitative insights from national and international sporting and anti-doping organisations. Sport Management Review, 19(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2015.12.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, L. B., Backhouse, S. H., & Lara-Bercial, S. (2019). Examining coaches’ experiences and opinions of anti-doping education. International Sport Coaching Journal, 6(2), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1123/iscj.2018-0008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perera, N. J., Steinbeck, K. S., & Shackel, N. (2013). The adverse health consequences of the use of multiple performance-enhancing substances—A deadly cocktail. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 98(12), 4613–4618. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-2310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petróczi, A., & Boardley, I. D. (2022). The meaning of “clean” in anti-doping education and decision making: Moving toward integrity and conceptual clarity [review]. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 4, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.869704
   Google Scholar
• Petróczi, A., & Haugen, K. K. (2012). The doping self-reporting game: The paradox of a ‘false-telling’mechanism and its potential research and policy implications. Sport Management Review, 15(4), 513–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2012.04.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petróczi, A., Norman, P., & Brueckner, S. (2017). Can we better integrate the role of anti-doping in sports and society? A psychological approach to contemporary value-based prevention. In Acute topics in anti-doping (Vol. 62, pp. 160–176). Karger Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1159/000460726
   Google Scholar
• Petrou, M., Lazuras, L., Hillier, M., & Mojtahedi, D. (2022). Doping behaviour in mixed martial arts athletes: The roles of social norms and self-regulatory efficacy. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20(4), 1086–1101. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2021.1948587
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poznyak, V., Saraceno, B., & Obot, I. S. (2005). Breaking the vicious circle of determinants and consequences of harmful alcohol use. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 83(11), 803.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen, J. (1997). Risk management in a dynamic society: A modelling problem. Safety Science, 27(2–3), 183–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-7535(97)00052-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodamar, J. (2018). There ought to be a law! Campbell versus Goodhart. Significance, 15(6), 9–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2018.01205.x
   Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., Cornelissen, M., & Trotter, M. J. (2012). Systems-based accident analysis methods: A comparison of accimap, HFACS, and STAMP. Safety Science, 50(4), 1158–1170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2011.11.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., Coventon, L., & Read, G. J. (2021). Understanding and preventing work-related violence in hospital settings: A systems thinking approach. Final report. University of the Sunshine Coast.
   Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., Goode, N., Taylor, N., Lenné, M. G., Dallat, C. E., & Finch, C. F. (2017). Rasmussen’s legacy in the great outdoors: A new incident reporting and learning system for led outdoor activities. Applied Ergonomics, 59, 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2015.07.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., Hulme, A., Walker, G. H., Waterson, P., Berber, E., & Stanton, N. A. (2020). The big picture on accident causation: A review, synthesis and meta-analysis of AcciMap studies. Safety Science, 126, 104650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104650
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., & McLean, S. (2020). Complexity in the beautiful game: Implications for football research and practice. Science and Medicine in Football, 4(2), 162–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/24733938.2019.1699247
   Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., Naughton, M., Hulme, A., & McLean, S. (2022). Bicycle crash contributory factors: A systematic review. Safety Science, 145, 105511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105511
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., Read, G. J., & Stevens, N. J. (2016). Who is in control of road safety? A STAMP control structure analysis of the road transport system in Queensland, Australia. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 96, 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2016.05.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., Read, G. J. M., Thompson, J., McLean, S., & McClure, R. (2020). Computational modelling and systems ergonomics: A system dynamics model of drink driving-related trauma prevention. Ergonomics, 63(8), 965–980. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2020.1745268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, P., Williamson, A., Lenne, M., Mitsopoulos-Rubens, E., & Rudin-Brown, C. M. (2010). Systems-based accident analysis in the led outdoor activity domain: Application and evaluation of a risk management framework. Ergonomics, 53(8), 927–939. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2010.489966
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savulescu, J., Creaney, L., & Vondy, A. (2013). Should athletes be allowed to use performance enhancing drugs? British Medical Journal, 347, f6150. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f6150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sekulic, D., Bjelanovic, L., Pehar, M., Pelivan, K., & Zenic, N. (2014). Substance use and misuse and potential doping behaviour in rugby union players. Research in Sports Medicine, 22(3), 226–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/15438627.2014.915839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelley, J., Thrower, N., & Petróczi, A. (2023). Whose job is it anyway? A qualitative investigation into the influence of agents, race organisers, and sponsors on the risk of doping in elite distance running. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 15(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2022.2161598
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, C. (2017). Tour du dopage: Confessions of doping professional cyclists in a modern work environment. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 52(1), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690215572855
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, A. C., & Stavros, C. (2020). Exploring the progressive use of performance enhancing substances by high-performance athletes. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(6), 914–927. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2019.1711412
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, A. N., Bishop, C. A., Liu, S., & Fitzharris, M. (2017). Alcohol consumption patterns and attitudes toward drink-drive behaviours and road safety enforcement strategies. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 98, 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2016.10.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevenson, M., Thompson, J., de Sá, T. H., Ewing, R., Mohan, D., McClure, R., Roberts, I., Tiwari, G., Giles-Corti, B., Sun, X., Wallace, M., & Woodcock, J. (2016). Land use, transport, and population health: Estimating the health benefits of compact cities. The Lancet, 388(10062), 2925–2935. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30067-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuart, M., & Mottram, D. (2019). New IOC certificate in drugs in sport supports healthcare professionals to lead on effective clinical drug use and doping prevention in athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(1), 48–49. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, P., & Razavi, P. (2017). Are athletes’ doping-related attitudes predicted by their perceptions of coaches’ confrontation efficacy? Substance Use & Misuse, 52(8), 1098–1103. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1272613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulrich, R., Pope, H. G., Cléret, L., Petróczi, A., Nepusz, T., Schaffer, J., Kanayama, G., Comstock, R. D., & Simon, P. (2018). Doping in two elite athletics competitions assessed by randomized-response surveys. Sports Medicine, 48(1), 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0765-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vakhitova, Z. I., & Bell, P. J. (2018). A script analysis of the role of athletes’ support networks as social facilitators in doping in sport. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 20(3), 168–188. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-018-0045-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vidar Hanstad, D., & Waddington, I. (2009). Sport, health and drugs: A critical re-examination of some key issues and problems. Perspectives in Public Health, 129(4), 174–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/1466424008094806
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waterson, P., Jenkins, D. P., Salmon, P. M., & Underwood, P. (2017). ‘Remixing Rasmussen’: The evolution of accimaps within systemic accident analysis. Applied Ergonomics, 59, 483–503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2016.09.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitaker, L., & Backhouse, S. (2017). Doping in sport: An analysis of sanctioned UK rugby union players between 2009 and 2015. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(16), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1226509
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitaker, L., Long, J., Petróczi, A., & Backhouse, S. H. (2014). Using the prototype willingness model to predict doping in sport. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(5), e398–e405. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12148
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woolf, J. R. (2020). An examination of anti-doping education initiatives from an educational perspective: Insights and recommendations for improved educational design. Performance Enhancement & Health, 8(2), 100178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2020.100178
   Google Scholar
• World Anti-Doping Agency. (2013). Report to WADA executive committee on lack of effectiveness of testing programs. https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2013-05-12-Lack-of-effectiveness-of-testing-WG-Report-Final.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Zucchetti, G., Candela, F., & Villosio, C. (2015). Psychological and social correlates of doping attitudes among Italian athletes. International Journal of Drug Policy, 26(2), 162–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.07.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar