References
- Bates , B.T. , Osternig , L.R. , Mason , B. and James , S.L. 1978 . “ Lower extremity function during the support phase of running ” . In Biomechanics V1‐B , Edited by: Asmussen , E. and Jorgensen , K. 30 – 9 . Baltimore : University Park Press .
- Bates , B.T. , Osternig , L.R. , Mason , B. and James , S.L. 1979 . Functional variability of the lower extremity during the support phase of running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 11 : 328 – 31 .
- Bates , B.T. , Osternig , L.P. , Sawhill , J.A. and James , S.L. 1983 . An assessment of subject variability, subject‐shoe interaction and the evaluation of running shoes using ground reaction force data . Journal of Biomechanics , 16 : 181 – 92 .
- Bauer , H. 1970 . The effect of high‐top and low‐cut football shoes on speed and agility . Athletic Journal , 50 : 74 – 9 .
- Ber , K. and Sady , S. 1985 . Oxygen cost of running at submaximal speeds while wearing shoe inserts . Research Quarterly , 56 : 86 – 9 .
- Bosco , C. and Rusko , H. 1983 . The effect of prolonged skeletal muscle stretch‐shortening cycle on recoil of elastic energy and on energy expenditure . Acta Physiologica Scandinavica , 119 : 219 – 24 .
- Bowers , K.D. and Martin , R.B. 1975 . Cleat‐surface friction on new and old Astroturf . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 7 : 132 – 5 .
- Bowers , K.D. and Martin , R.B. 1976 . Turf toe: a surface related football injury . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 8 : 81 – 3 .
- Bramwell , S.T. , Requa , R.K. and Garrick , J.G. 1972 . High school football injuries: a pilot comparison of playing surfaces . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 4 : 166 – 9 .
- Brody , D.M. 1980 . Running injuries . CIBA Clinical Symposia , 32 : 1 – 36 .
- Bühler , E. , Gall , H. and Drexel , H. 1983 . Untersuchung der Bodenkräfte in Abhängigkeit von der Aktivität einiger Beinmuskeln während der Standbeinphase des menschlichen Ganges . Zeitschrift für Orthopäde , 121 : 37 – 43 .
- Burkett , L.N. , Kohrt , W.M. and Buchbinder , R. 1985 . Effects of shoes and foot orthotics on VO2 and selected frontal plane knee kinematics . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 17 : 158 – 63 .
- Cavanagh , P.R. 1980 . The Running Shoe Book , Mountain View : Anderson World .
- Cavanagh , P.R. 1985 . “ Current approaches, problems and future directions in shoe evaluation techniques ” . In Biomechanics IX‐B , Edited by: Winter , D.A. , Norman , R.W. , Weils , R.P. , Hayes , K.C. and Patla , A.E. 123 – 7 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Cavanagh , P.R. , Clarke , T. , Williams , K. and Kalenak , A. An evaluation of the effect of orthotics on pressure distribution and rearfoot movement during running . A paper presented to the American Orthopedic Society for Sports Medicine . Lake Placid, NY.
- Cavanagh , P.R. and Lafortune , M.A. 1980 . Ground reaction forces in distance running . Journal of Biomechanics , 13 : 397 – 406 .
- Cavanagh , P.R. , Valiant , G.A. and Misevich , K.W. 1984 . “ Biological aspects of modelling shoe/foot interaction during running ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 24 – 46 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Cavanagh , P.R. and Williams , K.R. 1981 . Testing procedures for the 1982 Runner's World Shoe Survey . Runner's World , 16 (10) : 26 – 39 .
- Clarke , T.E. , Cooper , L.B. , Clark , D. and Hamill , C. 1983a . The effect of varied stride rate and length upon shank deceleration during ground contact in running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 15 : 170
- Clarke , T.E. , Cooper , L.B. , Clark , D. and Hamill , C. 1985 . “ The effect of increased running speed upon peak shank deceleration during ground contact ” . In Biomechanics IX‐B , Edited by: Winter , D.A. , Norman , R.W. , Wells , R.P. , Hayes , K.C. and Patla , A.E. 101 – 5 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Clarke , T.E. and Frederick , E.C. 1982 . Dynamic load displacement characteristics of various midsole materials . Journal of Biomechanics , 15 : 340
- Clarke , T.E. , Frederick , E.C. and Cooper , L.B. 1983b . “ Biomechanical measurement of running shoe cushioning properties ” . In Biomechanical Aspects of Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Nigg , B.M. and Kerr , B.A. 25 – 34 . Calgary : The University of Calgary, Alberta .
- Clarke , T.E. , Frederick , E.C. and Cooper , L.B. 1983c . The effects of shoe cushioning upon ground reaction forces in running . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 4 : 247 – 51 .
- Clarke , T.E. , Frederick , E.C. and Hamill , C.L. 1983d . The effect of shoe design upon rearfoot control in running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 15 : 376 – 81 .
- Clarke , T.E. , Frederick , E.C. and Hamill , C.L. 1984 . “ The study of rearfoot movement in running ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 166 – 89 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Clarke , T.E. , Frederick , E.C. and Hlavac , H.F. 1983e . The effects of a soft orthotic upon rearfoot control in running . Podiatric Sports Medicine , 1 : 20 – 3 .
- Coker , T.P. , Arnold , J.A. and Weber , D.L. 1978 . Traumatic lesions of the metatarsophalangeal joint of the great toe in athletes . American Journal of Sports Medicine , 6 : 326 – 34 .
- Falsetti , H.L. , Burke , E.R. , Feld , R. , Frederick , E.C. and Ratering , C. 1983 . Hematological variations after endurance running with hard and soft‐soled running shoes . Physician and Sportsmedicine , 11 : 118 – 27 .
- Frederick , E.C. 1983 . “ Measuring the effects of shoes and surfaces on the economy of locomotion ” . In Biomechanical Aspects of Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Nigg , B.M. and Kerr , B.A. 93 – 106 . Calgary : The University of Calgary, Alberta .
- Frederick , E.C. 1984a . Physiological and ergonomics factors in running shoe design . Applied Ergonomics , 15 : 281 – 7 .
- Frederick , E.C. 1984b . Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Frederick , E.C. 1985 . “ The energy cost of load carriage on the feet during running ” . In Biomechanics IX‐B , Edited by: Winter , D.A. , Norman , R.W. , Wells , R.P. , Hayes , K.C. and Patla , A.E. 295 – 300 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Frederick , E.C. 1986 . “ Biomechanical consequences of sport shoe design ” . In Exercise and Sports Science Reviews , Edited by: Pandolf , K.B. Vol. 14 , 375 – 400 . New York : Collamore‐Macmillan .
- Frederick , E.C. and Clarke , T.E. 1981 . Consequences of scaling on impact loading in running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 13 : 96
- Frederick , E.C. and Clarke , T.E. 1982 . “ Body size and biomechanical consequences ” . In Sports Medicine, Sports Science: Bridging the Gap , Edited by: Cantu , R.C. and Gillespie , W.J. 47 – 57 . Lexington, MA : Collamore Press .
- Frederick , E.C. , Clarke , T.E. and Hamill , C.L. 1984a . “ The effect of running shoe design on shock attenuation ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 190 – 8 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Frederick , E.C. , Clarke , T.E. , Larsen , J.L. and Cooper , L.B. 1983 . “ The effects of shoe cushioning on the oxygen demands of running ” . In Biomechanical Aspects of Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Nigg , B.M. and Kerr , B.A. 107 – 14 . Calgary : The University of Calgary, Alberta .
- Frederick , E.C. and Hagy , J.L. 1986 . Factors affecting peak vertical ground reaction forces in running . International Journal of Sports Biomechanics , 2 : 41 – 9 .
- Frederick , E.C. , Howley , E.T. and Powers , S.K. 1986 . Lower oxygen demands of running in soft‐soled shoes . Research Quarterly , 57 : 174 – 7 .
- Frederick , E.C. , Howley , E.T. , Hamill , C.L. and Cooper , L.B. 1984b . Ventilatory contributions to shock attenuation . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 16 : 185
- Garrick , J.G. and Requa , R.K. 1973 . Role of external support in the prevention of ankle sprains . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 5 : 200 – 3 .
- Hayes , J. , Smith , L. and Santopietro , F. 1983 . The effects of orthotics on the aerobic demands of running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 15 : 169
- Hlavac , H. 1977 . The Foot Book , Mountain View, CA : World Publications .
- James , S.L. , Bates , B.T. and Osternig , L.R. 1978 . Injuries to runners . American Journal of Sports Medicine , 6 : 40 – 50 .
- Johnson , G.R. , Dowson , D. and Wright , V. 1976 . Ankle loading and football boots . Rheumatology and Rehabilitation , 15 : 194 – 6 .
- Kaelin , X. , Denoth , J. , Stacoff , A. and Stuessi , E. 1985 . “ Cushioning during running‐material tests contra subject tests ” . In Biomechanics: Current Interdisciplinary Research , Edited by: Perren , S. and Schneider , E. 651 – 6 . Dordrecht, The Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff .
- Kolitzus , H. J. 1984 . “ Functional standards for playing surfaces ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 98 – 118 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Krahenbuhl , G.S. 1974 . Speed of movement with varying footwear conditions on synthetic turf and natural grass . Research Quarterly , 45 : 28 – 33 .
- Lowdon , A. , Bader , D.L. and Mowat , G.C. 1984 . The effect of heel pads on the treatment of Achilles tendinitis: a double blind trial . American Journal of Sports Medicine , 12 : 431 – 5 .
- Luethi , S.M. 1983 . Biomechanical analysis of short term pain and injuries in tennis , Alberta : University of Calgary . Unpublished dissertation
- Luethi , S. and Nigg , B.M. 1985 . “ The influence of different shoe constructions on discomfort and pain in tennis ” . In Biomechanics IX‐B , Edited by: Winter , D.A. , Norman , R.W. , Wells , R.P. , Hayes , K.C. and Patla , A.E. 149 – 53 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- MacLellan , G.E. 1984 . “ Skeletal heel strike transients, measurement, implications, and modification by footwear ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 76 – 86 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- MacLellan , G.E. and Vyvyan , B. 1981 . Management of pain beneath the heel and Achilles tendonitis (sic) with viscoelastic heel inserts . British Journal of Sports Medicine , 15 : 117 – 21 .
- McMahon , T.A. and Greene , P.R. 1979 . The influence of track compliance on running . Journal of Biomechanics , 12 : 893 – 904 .
- Miller , D.I. 1978 . Biomechanics of running ‐ what should the future hold . Canadian Journal of Applied Sports Science , 3 : 229 – 36 .
- Misevich , K.W. and Cavanagh , P.R. 1984 . “ Material aspects of modelling shoe/foot interaction ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 47 – 75 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Nigg , B.M. 1985 . “ Load in selected sports activities ‐ an overview ” . In Biomechanics IX‐B , Edited by: Winter , D.A. , Norman , R.W. , Wells , R.P. , Hayes , K.C. and Patla , A.E. 91 – 6 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Nigg , B.M. 1986 . Biomechanics of Running Shoes , Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Nigg , B.M. and Denoth , J. 1980 . Sportplatzbelaege , Zurich : Juris Verlag .
- Nigg , B.M. , Denoth , J. , Kerr , B. , Luethi , S. , Smith , D. and Stacoff , A. 1984 . “ Load, sport shoes and playing surfaces ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 1 – 23 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Nigg , B.M. , Denoth , J. , Luethi , S. and Stacoff , A. 1983 . “ Methodological aspects of sports shoe and sport floor analysis ” . In Biomechanics VIII‐B , Edited by: Matsui , H. and Kobayashi , K. 1041 – 52 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Nigg , B.M. , Denoth , J. and Neukomm , P.A. 1981 . “ Quantifying the load on the human body ” . In Biomechanics VII , Edited by: Morecki , A. and Fidelus , K. 88 – 105 . Baltimore : University Park Press .
- Nigg , B.M. , Frederick , E.C. , Hawes , M. and Luethi , S. 1986 . Factors influencing short term pain and injury in tennis . International Journal of Sports Biomechanics , 2 : 156 – 65 .
- Nigg , B.M. and Luethi , S. 1980 . Bewegunsanalysen beim Laufschuh . Sportwissenschaft , 3 : 309 – 20 .
- Nigg , B. , Neukomm , P. and Unold , E. 1974 . Biomechanik und sport . Orthopäde , 3 : 140 – 7 .
- Probst , K.J. and Leibig , K. 1980 . Der Sportler auf unterscheidlichen Bodenbelagen eine elektromyogra‐phische Analyse seiner Muskelaktivitaten . Orthopaedische Praxis , 10 : 841 – 3 .
- Rheinstein , D.J. , Morehouse , C.A. and Neibel , B.W. 1978 . Effects on traction of outsole composition and hardnesses of basketball shoes and three types of playing surfaces . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 10 : 282 – 8 .
- Segesser , B. and Nigg , B.M. 1980 . Insertionstendinosen am Schienben, Achillodynie und Überlastungsfolgen am Fuss: Ätiologie, Biomechanik, therapeutische Möglichkeiten . Orthopäde , 9 : 207 – 14 .
- Smith , L. , Clarke , T. , Hamill , C. and Santopietro , F. 1983 . The effect of soft and semi‐rigid orthoses upon rearfoot movement in running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 15 : 171
- Snel , J.G. , Delleman , N.J. , Heerkens , Y.F. and van Ingen Schenau , G J. 1985 . “ Shock absorbing characteristics of running shoes during actual running ” . In Biomechanics IX‐B , Edited by: Winter , D.A. , Norman , R.W. , Wells , R.P. , Hayes , K.C. and Patla , A.E. 133 – 7 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Stacoff , A. and Kaelin , X. 1983 . “ Pronation and sportshoe design ” . In Biomechanical Aspects of Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Nigg , B.M. and Kerr , B.A. 143 – 51 . Calgary : University of Calgary, Alberta .
- Stacoff , A. , Stuessi , E. and Sonderegger , D. 1985 . “ Lateral stability of sportshoes ” . In Biomechanics IX‐B , Edited by: Winter , D.A. , Norman , R.W. , Wells , R.P. , Hayes , K.C. and Patla , A.E. 139 – 43 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Stuke , H. , Baudzus , W. and Baumann , W. 1984 . “ On friction characteristics of playing surfaces ” . In Sport Shoes and Playing Surfaces , Edited by: Frederick , E.C. 87 – 97 . Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics .
- Taunton , J.E. , Clement , D.B. and McNicol , K. 1982a . Plantar fasciitis in runners . Canadian Journal of Applied Sports Sciences , 7 : 41 – 4 .
- Taunton , J.E. , Clement , D.B. , Smart , G.W. , Wiley , J.P. and McNicol , K.L. 1982b . A triplanar electrogonimometer investigation of running mechanics in runners with compensatory overpronation . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 2 : 31
- Torg , J.S. and Quedenfeld , L. 1971 . Effect of shoe type and cleat length on incidence and severity of knee injuries among high school football players . Research Quarterly , 42 : 203 – 11 .
- This material was first presented as a keynote address at the VIIIth Commonwealth and International Conference on Sport, Physical Education, Dance, Recreation and Health, held in Glasgow, July 1986.