Fluid and electrolyte loss and replacement in exerciseFootnote*

This paper is based on a review presented to the Gatorade Sports Science Conference in June 1990 and published in Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Volume 4: Ergogenics: The Enhancement of Sport Performance, edited by D.R. Lamb and M.H. Williams. Benchmark Press: Carmel, pp. 35–85, 1991.

References

• Ahlborg , B. , Bergstrom , J. , Brohult , J. , Ekelund , L.‐G. , Hultman , E. and Mashio , E. 1967 . Human muscle glycogen content and capacity for prolonged exercise after different diets . Forsvarsmedicin , 3 : 85 – 99 .
   Google Scholar
• Allan , J.R. and Wilson , C.G. 1971 . Influence of acclimatization on sweat sodium secretion . Journal of Applied Physiology , 30 : 708 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American College of Sports Medicine . 1975 . Position statement on prevention of heat injuries during distance running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 7 : vii – ix .
   Google Scholar
• American College of Sports Medicine . 1984 . Position stand on prevention of thermal injuries during distance running . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 16 : ix – xiv .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barr , S.I. and Costil , D.L. 1989 . Can the endurance athlete get too much of a good thing . Journal of the American Dietetic Association , 89 : 1629 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beller , G.A. , Maher , J.T. , Hartley , L.H. , Bass , D.E. and Wacker , W.E.C. 1972 . Serum Mg and K concentrations during exercise in thermoneutral and hot conditions . Physiologist , 15 : 94
   Google Scholar
• Brener , W. , Hendrix , T.R. and McHugh , P.R. 1983 . Regulation of the gastric emptying of glucose . Gastroenterology , 85 : 76 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouns , F. , Saris , W.H.M. and Rehrer , N.J. 1987 . Abdominal complaints and gastrointestinal function during long‐lasting exercise . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 8 : 175 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cade , R. , Spooner , G. , Schlein , E. , Pickering , M. and Dean , R. 1972 . Effect of fluid, electrolyte, and glucose replacement on performance, body temperature, rate of sweat loss and compositional changes of extracellular fluid . Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , 12 : 150 – 6 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Carter , J.E. and Gisolfi , C.V. 1989 . Fluid replacement during and after exercise in the heat . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 21 : 532 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coggan , A.R. and Coyle , E.F. 1988 . Effect of carbohydrate feedings during high‐intensity exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 65 : 1703 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , I. and Zimmerman , A.L. 1978 . Changes in serum electrolyte levels during marathon running . South African Medical Journal , 53 : 449 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Convertino , V.A. , Brock , P.J. , Keil , L.C. , Bernauer , E.M. and Greenleaf , J.E. 1980 . Exercise training‐induced hypervolemia: role of plasma albumin, renin and vasopressin . Journal of Applied Physiology , 48 : 665 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Convertino , V.A. , Keil , L.C. and Greenleaf , J.E. 1983 . Plasma volume, renin, and vasopressin responses to graded exercise after training . Journal of Applied Physiology , 54 : 508 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costill , D.L. 1977 . Sweating: its composition and effects on body fluids . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 301 : 160 – 74 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Costill , D.L. and Miller , J.M. 1980 . Nutrition for endurance sport . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 1 : 2 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Costill , D.L. and Saltin , B. 1974 . Factors limiting gastric emptying during rest and exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 37 : 679 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costill , D.L. and Sparks , K.E. 1973 . Rapid fluid replacement following thermal dehydration . Journal of Applied Physiology , 34 : 299 – 303 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costill , D.L. , Bennett , A. , Branam , G. and Eddy , D. 1973 . Glucose ingestion at rest and during prolonged exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 34 : 764 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costill , D.L. , Branam , G. , Fink , W. and Nelson , R. 1976 . Exercise induced sodium conservation: changes in plasma renin and aldosterone . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 8 : 209 – 13 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyle , E.F. and Coggan , A.R. 1984 . Effectiveness of carbohydrate feeding in delaying fatigue during prolonged exercise . Sports Medicine , 1 : 446 – 58 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyle , E.F. and Hamilton , M. 1990 . “ Fluid replacement during exercise: Effects on physiological homeostasis and performance ” . In Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine. Volume 3 Fluid homeostasis during exercise , Edited by: Gisolfi , C.V. and Lamb , D.R. 281 – 308 . Carmel : Benchmark Press .
   Google Scholar
• Coyle , E.F. , Hagberg , J.M. , Hurley , B.F. , Martin , W.H. , Ehsani , A.H. and Holloszy , J.O. 1983 . Carbohydrate feeding during prolonged strenuous exercise can delay fatigue . Journal of Applied Physiology , 55 : 230 – 35 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyle , E.F. , Coggan , A.R. , Hemmert , M.K. and Ivy , J.L. 1986 . Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate . Journal of Applied Physiology , 61 : 165 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson , R.J.L. , Robertson , J.D. , Galea , G. and Maughan , R.J. 1987 . Haematological changes associated with marathon running . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 8 : 19 – 25 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies , C.T.M. and Thompson , M.W. 1979 . Aerobic performance of female marathon and male ultramarathon athletes . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 41 : 233 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deschamps , A. , Levy , R.D. , Cosio , M.G. , Marliss , E.B. and Magder , S. 1989 . Effect of saline infusion on body temperature and endurance during heavy exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 66 : 2799 – 804 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duchman , S.M. , Blieler , T.L. , Schedl , H.P. , Summers , R.W. and Gisolfi , C.V. 1990 . Effects of gastric function on intestinal composition of oral rehydration solutions . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 22 (Suppl.) : S89
   Google Scholar
• Erickson , M.A. , Schwartzkopf , R.J. and McKenzie , R.D. 1987 . Effects of caffeine, fructose, and glucose ingestion on muscle glycogen utilization during exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 19 : 579 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Felig , P. , Cherif , A. , Minigawa , A. and Wahren , J. 1982 . Hypoglycaemia during prolonged exercise in normal men . New England Journal of Medicine , 306 : 895 – 900 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fellmann , N. , Sagnol , M. , Bedu , M. , Falgairette , G. , Van Praagh , E. , Gaillard , G. , Jouanel , P. and Coudert , J. 1988 . Enzymatic and hormonal responses following a 24 h endurance run and a 10 h triathlon race . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 57 : 545 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fielding , R.A. , Costill , D.L. , Fink , W.J. , King , D.S. , Hargreaves , M. and Kovaleski , M.E. 1985 . Effect of carbohydrate feeding frequencies on muscle glycogen use during exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 17 : 472 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flear , C.T.G. , Gill , C.V. and Burn , J. 1981 . Beer drinking and hyponatraemia . Lancet , 2 : 477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn , M.G. , Costill , D.L. , Hawley , J.A. , Fink , W.J. , Neufer , P.D. , Fielding , R.A. and Sleeper , M.D. 1987 . Influence of selected carbohydrate drinks on cycling performance and glycogen use . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 19 : 37 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fordtran , J.S. 1975 . Stimulation of active and passive sodium absorption by sugars in the human jejunum . Journal of Clinical Investigation , 55 : 728 – 37 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fordtran , J.S. and Saltin , B. 1967 . Gastric emptying and intestinal absorption during prolonged severe exercise . Journal of Applied Physiology , 23 : 331 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortney , S.M. , Wenger , C.B. , Bove , J.R. and Nadel , E.R. 1984 . Effect of hyperosmolality on control of blood flow and sweating . Journal of Applied Physiology , 57 : 1688 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fortney , S.M. , Vroman , N.B. , Beckett , W.S. , Permutt , S. and LaFrance , N.D. 1988 . Effect of exercise hemoconcentration and hyperosmolality on exercise responses . Journal of Applied Physiology , 65 : 519 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster , C. , Costill , D.L. and Fink , W.J. 1980 . Gastric emptying characteristics of glucose and glucose polymers . Research Quarterly , 51 : 299 – 305 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frizell , R.T. , Lang , G.H. , Lowance , D.C. and Lathan , S.R. 1986 . Hyponatraemia and ultramarathon running . Journal of the American Medical Association , 255 : 772 – 4 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenhaff , P.L. and Clough , P.J. 1989 . Predictors of sweat loss in man during prolonged exercise . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 58 : 348 – 52 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenleaf , J.E. , Castle , B.L. and Card , D.H. 1974 . Blood electrolytes and temperature regulation during exercise in man . Acta Physiologica Polonica , 25 : 397 – 410 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallberg , L. and Magnusson , B. 1984 . The aetiology of sports anaemia . Acta Medica Scandinavica , 216 : 145 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hargreaves , M. and Briggs , C.A. 1988 . Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on exercise metabolism . Journal of Applied Physiology , 65 : 1553 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hargreaves , M. , Costill , D.L. , Coggan , A. , Fink , W.J. and Nishibata , I. 1984 . Effect on carbohydrate feedings on muscle glycogen utilization and exercise performance . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 16 : 219 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison , M.H. , Edwards , R.J. and Fennessy , P.A. 1978 . Intravascular volume and tonicity as factors in the regulation of body temperature . Journal of Applied Physiology , 44 : 69 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiller , W.D.B. 1989 . Dehydration and hyponatraemia during triathlons . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 21 : 219 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivy , J. , Costill , D.L. , Fink , W.J. and Lower , R.W. 1979 . Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feedings on endurance performance . Medicine and Science in Sports , 11 : 6 – 11 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Joborn , H. , Akerstrom , G. and Ljunghall , S. 1985 . Effects of exogenous catecholamines and exercise on plasma magnesium concentrations . Clinical Endocrinology , 23 : 219 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , B.J.M. , Brown , B.E. , Loran , J.S. , Edgerton , D. and Kennedy , J.F. 1983 . Glucose absorption from starch hydrolysates in the human jejunum . Gut , 24 : 1152 – 60 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , B.J.M. , Higgins , B.E. and Silk , D.B.A. 1987 . Glucose absorption from maltotriose and glucose oligomers in the human jejunum . Clinical Science , 72 : 409 – 14 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kavanagh , T. and Shephard , R.J. 1975 . Maintenance of hydration in ‘post‐coronary’ marathon runners . British Journal of Sports Medicine , 9 : 130 – 5 .
   Google Scholar
• Kobayashi , Y. , Ando , Y. , Takeuchi , S. , Takemura , K. and Okuda , N. 1980 . Effects of heat acclimation of distance runners in a moderately hot environment . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 45 : 189 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamb , D.R. and Brodowicz , G.R. 1986 . Optimal use of fluids of varying formulations to minimize exercise‐induced disturbances in homeostasis . Sports Medicine , 3 : 247 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leatt , P. 1986 . The effect of glucose polymer ingestion on skeletal muscle glycogen depletion during soccer match‐play and its resynthesis following a match , University of Toronto . MSc Thesis,
   Google Scholar
• Leiper , J.B. and Maughan , R.J. 1988 . Experimental models for the investigation of water and soluble transport in man: implications for oral rehydration solutions . Drugs , 36 ( Suppl. 4 ) : 65 – 79 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leithead , C.S. and Lind , A.R. 1964 . Heat Stress and Heat Disorders , London : Cassell .
   Google Scholar
• Lentner , C. , ed. 1981 . Geigy Scientific Tables. , 8th edn. , Basel : Ciba‐Geigy Limited .
   Google Scholar
• Lijnen , P. , Hespel , P. , Fagard , R. , Lysens , R. , Vanden Eynde , E. and Amery , A. 1988 . Erythrocyte, plasma and urinary magnesium in men before and after a marathon . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 58 : 252 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lolli , G. , Greenberg , L.A. and Lester , D. 1952 . The influence of carbonated water on gastric emptying . New England Journal of Medicine , 246 : 490 – 2 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massicote , D. , Peronnet , F. , Brisson , G. , Bakkouch , K. and Hillaire‐Marcel , C. 1989 . Oxidation of a glucose polymer during exercise comparison with glucose and fructose . Journal of Applied Physiology , 66 : 179 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan , R.J. 1985 . Thermoregulation and fluid balance in marathon competition at low ambient temperature . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 6 : 15 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan , R.J. 1991 . “ Effects of CHO‐electrolyte solution on prolonged exercise ” . In Ergogenics: The Enhancement of Sport and Exercise Performance , Edited by: Lamb , D.R. and Williams , H.H. Carmel : Benchmark Press .
   Google Scholar
• Maughan , R.J. and Leiper , J.B. 1983 . Aerobic capacity and fractional utilization of aerobic capacity in elite and non‐elite male and female marathon runners . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 52 : 80 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan , R.J. and Whiting , P.H. 1985 . “ Factors influencing plasma glucose concentration during marathon running ” . In Exercise Physiology , Edited by: Dotson , C.D. and Humphrey , J.H. Vol. 1 , 87 – 98 . New York : AMS Press .
   Google Scholar
• Maughan , R.J. , Fenn , C.E. , Gleeson , M. and Leiper , J.B. 1987 . Metabolic and circulatory responses to the ingestion of glucose polymer and glucose/electrolyte solutions during exercise in man . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 56 : 356 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan , R.J. , Fenn , C.E. and Leiper , J.B. 1989 . Effects of fluid, electrolyte and substrate ingestion on endurance capacity . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 58 : 481 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maughan , R.J. , Leiper , J.B. and McGaw , B.A. 1990 . Effects of exercise intensity on absorption of ingested fluids in man . Experimental Physiology , 75 : 419 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McArthur , K.E. and Feldman , M. 1989 . Gastric acid secretion, gastrin release, and gastric temperature in humans as affected by liquid meal temperature . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 49 : 51 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meytes , I. , Shapira , Y. , Magazanik , A. , Meytes , D. and Seligsohn , U. 1969 . Physiological and biochemical changes during a marathon race . International Journal of Biometeorology , 13 : 317
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell , D. , Senay , L.C. , Wyndham , C.H. , Van Rensburg , A.J. , Rogers , G.G. and Strydom , N.B. 1976 . Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: energy exchange, body temperature, and sweating . Journal of Applied Physiology , 40 : 768 – 78 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , J.B. , Costill , D.K. , Houmard , J.A. , Fink , W.J. , Robergs , R.A. and Davis , J.A. 1989 . Gastric emptying: influence of prolonged exercise and carbohydrate concentration . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 21 : 269 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , J.B. , Costill , D.L. , Houmard , J.A. , Flynn , M.G. , Fink , W.J. and Beltz , J.D. 1988 . Effects of carbohydrate ingestion on gastric emptying and exercise performance . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 20 : 110 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , R. 1987 . The effects of consuming carbohydrate‐electrolyte beverages on gastric emptying and fluid absorption during and following exercise . Sports Medicine , 4 : 322 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , R. , Eddy , D.E. , Murray , T.W. , Seifert , J.G. , Paul , G.L. and Halaby , G.A. 1987 . The effect of fluid and carbohydrate feedings during intermittent cycling exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 19 : 597 – 604 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadel , E.R. 1980 . Circulatory and thermal regulations during exercise . Federation Proceedings , 39 : 1491 – 7 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nadel , E.R. , Mack , G.W. and Nose , H. 1990 . “ Influence of fluid replacement beverages on body fluid homeostasis during exercise and recovery ” . In Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine. Vol. 3, Fluid homeostasis during exercise , Edited by: Gisolfi , C.V. and Lamb , D.R. 181 – 205 . Carmel : Benchmark Press .
   Google Scholar
• Naveri , H. , Tikkanen , H. , Kairento , A.‐L. and Harkonen , M. 1989 . Gastric emptying and serum insulin levels after intake of glucose‐polymer solutions . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 58 : 661 – 5 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen , B. , Sjogaard , G. , Vgelvig , J. , Knudsen , B. and Dohlmann , B. 1986 . Fluid balance in exercise dehydration and rehydration with different glucose‐electrolyte drinks . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 55 : 318 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noakes , T.D. 1990 . The dehydration myth and carbohydrate replacement during prolonged exercise . Cycling Science , 1 : 23 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Noakes , T.D. , Goodwin , N. , Rayner , B.L. , Branken , T. and Taylor , R.K.N. 1985 . Water intoxication: a possible complication during endurance exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 17 : 370 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noakes , T.D. , Adams , B.A. , Myburgh , K.H. , Greeff , C. , Lotz , T. and Nathan , M. 1988 . The danger of an inadequate water intake during prolonged exercise. A novel concept re‐visited . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 57 : 210 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noakes , T.D. , Norman , R.J. , Buck , R.H. , Godlonton , J. , Stevenson , K. and Pittaway , D. 1990 . The incidence of hyponatremia during prolonged ultraendurance exercise . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 22 : 165 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nose , H. , Mack , G.W. , Shi , X. and Nadel , E.R. 1988a . Role of osmolality and plasma volume during rehydration in humans . Journal of Applied Physiology , 65 : 325 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nose , H. , Mack , G.W. , Shi , X. and Nadel , E.R. 1988b . Involvement of sodium retention hormones during rehydration in humans . Journal of Applied Physiology , 65 : 332 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson , K.E. and Saltin , B. 1971 . Diet and fluids in training and competition . Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine , 3 : 31 – 8 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pirnay , F. , Crielaard , J.M. , Pallikarakis , N. , Lacroix , M. , Mosora , F. , Krzentowski , G. , Luyckx , A.S. and Lefebvre , P.J. 1982 . Fate of exogenous glucose during exercise of different intensities in humans . Journal of Applied Physiology , 53 : 1620 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts , R.F. 1959 . The Physiological Basis of Diuretic Therapy , Springfield, Illinois : C.C. Thomas .
   Google Scholar
• Poortmans , J. 1984 . Exercise and renal function . Sports Medicine , 1 : 125 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Refsum , H.E. , Meen , H.D. and Stromme , S.B. 1973 . Whole blood, serum and erythrocyte magnesium concentrations after repeated heavy exercise of long duration . Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation , 32 : 123 – 7 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rehrer , N.J. 1990 . Limits to Fluid Availability During Exercise , Haarlem : Vrieseborsch .
   Google Scholar
• Rehrer , N.J. , Beckers , E. , Brouns , F. , ten Hoor , F. and Saris , W.H.M. 1989a . Exercise and training effects on gastric emptying of carbohydrate beverages . Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 21 : 540 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rehrer , N.J. , Janssen , G.M.E. , Brouns , F. and Saris , W.H.M. 1989b . Fluid intake and gastrointestinal problems in runners competing in a 25‐km race and a marathon . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 10 ( Suppl. 1 ) : S22 – S25 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson , J.D. , Maughan , R.J. and Davidson , R.J.L. 1988 . Changes in red cell density and related parameters in response to long distance running . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 57 : 264 – 9 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose , L.I. , Carroll , D.R. , Lowe , S.L. , Peterson , E.W. and Cooper , K.H. 1970 . Serum electrolyte changes after marathon running . Journal of Applied Physiology , 29 : 449 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowell , L.B. 1986 . Human Circulation , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Saltin , B. and Costill , D.L. 1988 . “ Fluid and electrolyte balance during prolonged exercise ” . In Exercise, Nutrition, and Metabolism , Edited by: Horton , E.S. and Tenjung , R.L. 150 – 8 . New York : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Saltin , B. and Karlsson , J. 1977 . “ Die Ernahrung des sportlers ” . In Zentrale Themen der Sportmedizin , Edited by: Hollmen , W. Berlin : Springer‐Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Sasaki , H. , Maeda , J. , Usui , S. and Ishiko , T. 1987 . Effect of sucrose and caffeine ingestion on performance of prolonged strenuous running . International Journal of Sports Medicine , 8 : 261 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , R.F. and Thews , G. , eds. 1989 . Human Physiology. , 2nd edn. , Berlin : Springer‐Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Senay , L.C. 1979 . Effects of exercise in the heat on body fluid distribution . Medicine and Science in Sports , 11 : 42 – 8 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Senay , L.C. , Mitchell , D. and Wyndham , C.H. 1976 . Acclimatization in a hot humid environment: body fluid adjustments . Journal of Applied Physiology , 40 : 786 – 96 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sole , C.C. and Noakes , T.D. 1989 . Faster gastric emptying for glucose‐polymer and fructose solutions than for glucose in humans . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 58 : 605 – 12 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiller , R.C. , Jones , B.J.M. , Brown , B.E. and Silk , D.B.A. 1982 . Enhancement of carbohydrate absorption by the addition of sucrose to enteric diets . Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition , 6 : 321
   Google Scholar
• Stansbie , D. , Tomlinson , K. , Potman , J.M. and Walters , E.G. 1982 . Hypothermia, hypokalaemia and marathon running . Lancet , 2 : 1336
   Google Scholar
• Sun , W.M. , Houghton , L.A. , Read , N.W. , Grundy , D.G. and Johnson , A.G. 1988 . Effect of meal temperature on gastric emptying of liquids in man . Gut , 29 : 302 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki , Y. 1980 . Human physical performance and cardiocirculatory responses to hot environments during sub‐maximal upright cycling . Ergonomics , 23 : 527 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verde , T. , Shephard , R.J. , Corey , P. and Moore , R. 1982 . Sweat composition in exercise and in heat . Journal of Applied Physiology , 53 : 1540 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wapnir , R.A. and Lifshitz , F. 1985 . Osmolality and solute concentration ‐ their relationship with oral rehydration solution effectiveness: an experimental assessment . Pediatric Research , 19 : 894 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whiting , P.H. , Maughan , R.J. and Miller , J.D.B. 1984 . Dehydration and serum biochemical changes in runners . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 52 : 183 – 7 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , C. 1989 . Diet and endurance fitness . American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 49 : 1077 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , C. , Nute , M.G. , Broadbank , L. and Vinall , S. 1990 . Influence of fluid intake on endurance running performance: a comparison between water, glucose and fructose solutions . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 60 : 112 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyndham , C.H. , Rogers , G.G. , Senay , L.C. and Mitchell , D. 1976 . Acclimatization in a hot, humid environment: cardiovascular adjustments . Journal of Applied Physiology , 40 : 779 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• This paper is based on a review presented to the Gatorade Sports Science Conference in June 1990 and published in Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Volume 4: Ergogenics: The Enhancement of Sport Performance, edited by D.R. Lamb and M.H. Williams. Benchmark Press: Carmel, pp. 35–85, 1991.
   Google Scholar