References
- Akgun, M., Boz, I., & Ozer, Z. (2019). The effect of psychoeducation on fear of childbirth and birth type: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/0167482X.2019.1689950
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Author.
- Andersen, L. B., Melvaer, L. B., Videbech, P., Lamont, R. F., & Joergensen, J. S. (2012). Risk factors for developing post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth: A systematic review. Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica, 91(11), 1261–1272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0412.2012.01476.x
- Ayers, S., Joseph, S., McKenzie-McHarg, K., Slade, P., & Wijma, K. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder following childbirth: Current issues and recommendations for future research. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 29(4), 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/01674820802034631
- Calderani, E., Giardinelli, L., Scannerini, S., Arcabasso, S., Compagno, E., Petraglia, F., & Ricca, V. (2019). Tocophobia in the DSM-5 era: Outcomes of a new cut-off analysis of the Wijma delivery expectancy/experience questionnaire based on clinical presentation. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 116, 37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.11.012
- D’Souza, R. (2013). Caesarean section on maternal request for non-medical reasons: Putting the UK National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence guidelines in perspective. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 27(2), 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2012.09.006
- De Boeck, K., Castellani, C., & Elborn, J. S., On behalf of the ECFS Board. (2014). Medical consensus, guidelines, and position papers: A policy for the ECFS. Journal of Cystic Fibrosis, 13(5), 495–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcf.2014.06.012
- Dekel, S., Stuebe, C., & Dishy, G. (2017). Childbirth induced posttraumatic stress syndrome: A systematic review of prevalence and risk factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 560. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00560
- Ding, X. X., Wu, Y. L., Xu, S. J., Zhu, R. P., Jia, X. M., Zhang, S. F., … Tao, F. B. (2014). Maternal anxiety during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 159, 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.02.027
- Eggermont, M. (2012). The choice of child delivery is a European human right. European Journal of Health Law, 19(3), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1163/157180912x639125
- Fenwick, J., Toohill, J., Gamble, J., Creedy, D. K., Buist, A., Turkstra, E., … Ryding, E. L. (2015). Effects of a midwife psycho-education intervention to reduce childbirth fear on women’s birth outcomes and postpartum psychological wellbeing. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 15(1), 284. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-015-0721-y
- Fisher, C., Hauck, Y., & Fenwick, J. (2006). How social context impacts on women’s fears of childbirth: A Western Australian example. Social Science & Medicine, 63(1), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.11.065
- Furuta, M., Horsch, A., Ng, E. S. W., Bick, D., Spain, D., & Sin, J. (2018). Effectiveness of trauma-focused psychological therapies for treating post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in women following childbirth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9(591). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00591
- Garthus-Niegel, S., Knoph, C., von Soest, T., Nielsen, C. S., & Eberhard-Gran, M. (2014). The role of labor pain and overall birth experience in the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms: A longitudinal cohort study. Birth, 41(1), 108–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/birt.12093
- Greenfield, M., Jomeen, J., & Glover, L. (2019). “It can’t be like last time” - Choices made in early pregnancy by women who have previously experienced a traumatic birth. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 56. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00056
- Grekin, R., & O’Hara, M. W. (2014). Prevalence and risk factors of postpartum posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 34(5), 389–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.05.003
- Haagen, J. F., Moerbeek, M., Olde, E., van der Hart, O., & Kleber, R. J. (2015). PTSD after childbirth: A predictive ethological model for symptom development. Journal of Affective Disorders, 185, 135–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.049
- Haines, H. M., Pallant, J. F., Fenwick, J., Gamble, J., Creedy, D. K., Toohill, J., & Hildingsson, I. (2015). Identifying women who are afraid of giving birth: A comparison of the fear of birth scale with the WDEQ-A in a large Australian cohort. Sexual & Reproductive HealthCare, 6(4), 204–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2015.05.002
- Hanson, S., Hunter, L. P., Bormann, J. R., & Sobo, E. J. (2009). Paternal fears of childbirth: A literature review. Journal of Perinatal Education, 18(4), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1624/105812409X474672
- Hildingsson, I., Johansson, M., Fenwick, J., Haines, H., & Rubertsson, C. (2014). Childbirth fear in expectant fathers: Findings from a regional Swedish cohort study. Midwifery, 30(2), 242–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2013.01.001
- Hildingsson, I., Rubertsson, C., Karlstrom, A., & Haines, H. (2019). A known midwife can make a difference for women with fear of childbirth- birth outcome and women’s experiences of intrapartum care. Sexual & Reproductive HealthCare, 21, 33–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2019.06.004
- Hofberg, K., & Brockington, I. (2000). Tokophobia: An unreasoning dread of childbirth. A series of 26 cases. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176(1), 83–85. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.176.1.83
- Hofberg, K., & Ward, M. R. (2004). Fear of childbirth, tocophobia, and mental health in mothers: The obstetric-psychiatric interface. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology, 47(3), 527–534. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.grf.0000132527.62504.ca
- Horsch, A., & Stuijfzand, S. (2019). Intergenerational transfer of perinatal trauma-related consequences. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 37(3), 221–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2019.1629190
- Jenabi, E., Khazaei, S., Bashirian, S., Aghababaei, S., & Matinnia, N. (2019). Reasons for elective cesarean section on maternal request: A systematic review. Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2019.1587407
- Jones, C., Marshall, C., Martin, C. R., & Jomeen, J. (2020). Pregnant with fear. Community Practitioner, 2. https://www.communitypractitioner.co.uk/features/2020/02/pregnant-fear
- Jones, C. C., Jomeen, J., & Hayter, M. (2014). The impact of peer support in the context of perinatal mental illness: A meta-ethnography. Midwifery, 30(5), 491–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2013.08.003
- King, L., McKenzie-McHarg, K., & Horsch, A. (2017). Testing a cognitive model to predict posttraumatic stress disorder following childbirth. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 17(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-016-1194-3
- Konig, J. (2019). The German W-DEQ version B-Factor structure and prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms six weeks and one year after childbirth. Health Care for Women International, 40(5), 581–596. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2019.1583230
- Korukcu, O., Bulut, O., & Kukulu, K. (2016). Psychometric evaluation of the Wijma delivery expectancy/experience questionnaire version B. Health Care for Women International, 37(5), 550–567. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2014.943838
- Littleton, H. L., Breitkopf, C. R., & Berenson, A. B. (2007). Correlates of anxiety symptoms during pregnancy and association with perinatal outcomes: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 196(5), 424–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2007.03.042
- Mckay, P. G., Martin, C. R., Walker, H., & Fleming, M. (2019). Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS)/Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME) and Fibromyalgia (FM): The foundation of a relationship. British Journal of Pain, 2049463719875164. https://doi.org/10.1177/2049463719875164
- McMurtry, C. M., Taddio, A., Noel, M., Antony, M. M., Chambers, C. T., Asmundson, G. J., … Scott, J. (2016). Exposure-based Interventions for the management of individuals with high levels of needle fear across the lifespan: A clinical practice guideline and call for further research. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45(3), 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2016.1157204
- Melender, H. L. (2002). Experiences of fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth: A study of 329 pregnant women. Birth, 29(2), 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-536x.2002.00170.x
- Menacker, F., Declercq, E., & Macdorman, M. F. (2006). Cesarean delivery: Background, trends, and epidemiology. Seminars in Perinatology, 30(5), 235–241. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2006.07.002
- Mirghafourvand, M., Mohammad Alizadeh Charandabi, S., Ghanbari-Homayi, S., Jahangiry, L., Nahaee, J., & Hadian, T. (2019). Effect of birth plans on childbirth experience: A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 25(4), e12722. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.12722
- Moghaddam Hosseini, V., Nazarzadeh, M., & Jahanfar, S. (2018). Interventions for reducing fear of childbirth: A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Women and Birth, 31(4), 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wombi.2017.10.007
- Moore, D., Ayers, S., & Drey, N. (2016). A thematic analysis of stigma and disclosure for perinatal depression on an online forum. JMIR Mental Health, 3(2), e18. https://doi.org/10.2196/mental.5611
- Mortazavi, F. (2017). Validity and reliability of the Farsi version of Wijma delivery expectancy questionnaire: An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Electronic Physician, 9(6), 4606–4615. https://doi.org/10.19082/4606
- Nath, S., Busuulwa, P., Ryan, E. G., Challacombe, F. L., & Howard, L. M. (2020). The characteristics and prevalence of phobias in pregnancy. Midwifery, 82, 102590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2019.102590
- National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2014). Antenatal and postnatal mental health: Clinical management and service guidance: Clinical guideline [CG192]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg192
- Nilsson, C., Hessman, E., Sjoblom, H., Dencker, A., Jangsten, E., Mollberg, M., … Begley, C. (2018). Definitions, measurements and prevalence of fear of childbirth: A systematic review. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 18(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-018-1659-7
- Noonan, M., Doody, O., Jomeen, J., & Galvin, R. (2017). Midwives’ perceptions and experiences of caring for women who experience perinatal mental health problems: An integrative review. Midwifery, 45, 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2016.12.010
- Noonan, M., Doody, O., O’Regan, A., Jomeen, J., & Galvin, R. (2018). Irish general practitioners’ view of perinatal mental health in general practice: A qualitative study. BMC Family Practice, 19(1), 196. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-018-0884-5
- O’Connell, M. A., Leahy-Warren, P., Khashan, A. S., Kenny, L. C., & O’Neill, S. M. (2017). Worldwide prevalence of tocophobia in pregnant women: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica, 96(8), 907–920. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.13138
- O’Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Glover, V., & Alspac Study, T. (2002). Antenatal anxiety predicts child behavioral/emotional problems independently of postnatal depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(12), 1470–1477. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200212000-00019
- Pallant, J. F., Haines, H. M., Green, P., Toohill, J., Gamble, J., Creedy, D. K., & Fenwick, J. (2016). Assessment of the dimensionality of the Wijma delivery expectancy/experience questionnaire using factor analysis and Rasch analysis. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 16(1), 361. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-016-1157-8
- Pan-London Perinatal Mental Health Networks. (2018). Fear of childbirth (tokophobia) and traumatic experience of childbirth: Best practice toolkit. https://www.healthylondon.org/resource/tokophobia-best-practice-toolkit/
- Poggi, L., Goutaudier, N., Sejourne, N., & Chabrol, H. (2018). When Fear of Childbirth is Pathological: The Fear Continuum. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22(5), 772–778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-018-2447-8
- Redshaw, M., Martin, C., Rowe, R., & Hockley, C. (2009). The Oxford worries about labour scale: Women’s experience and measurement characteristics of a measure of maternal concern about labour and birth. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 14(3), 354–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548500802707159
- Reyes, E., & Rosenberg, K. (2019). Maternal motives behind elective cesarean sections. American Journal of Human Biology, 31(2), e23226. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23226
- Richens, Y., Campbell, M., & Lavender, T. (2019). Fear of birth-A prospective cohort study of primigravida in the UK. Midwifery, 77, 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2019.06.014
- Richens, Y., Smith, D. M., & Lavender, D. T. (2018). Fear of birth in clinical practice: A structured review of current measurement tools. Sexual and Reproductive HealthCare, 16, 98–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2018.02.010
- Romanis, E. C. (2019). Why the elective caesarean lottery is ethically impermissible. Health Care Analysis, 27(4), 249–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10728-019-00370-0
- Rouhe, H., Salmela-Aro, K., Toivanen, R., Tokola, M., Halmesmaki, E., & Saisto, T. (2013). Obstetric outcome after intervention for severe fear of childbirth in nulliparous women - randomised trial. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 120(1), 75–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.12011
- Ruffell, B., Smith, D. M., & Wittkowski, A. (2019). The experiences of male partners of women with postnatal mental health problems: A systematic review and thematic synthesis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(10), 2772–2790. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01496-4
- Ryding, E., Lukasse, M., Parys, A.-S., Wangel, A.-M., Karro, H., Kristjánsdóttir, H., Schroll, A.-M., & Schei, B. (2015). Fear of childbirth and risk of cesarean delivery: A cohort study in six European countries. Birth (Berkeley, Calif.), 42(1), 48–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/birt.12147
- Schwab, W., Marth, C., & Bergant, A. M. (2012). Post-traumatic stress disorder post partum: The impact of birth on the prevalence of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in multiparous women. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde, 72(1), 56–63. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1280408
- Sheen, K., & Slade, P. (2018). Examining the content and moderators of women’s fears for giving birth: A meta-synthesis. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 27(13–14), 2523–2535. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14219
- Sheen, K., Slade, P., Balling, K., & Houghton, G. (2018). An examination of clarity, acceptability and content validity of existing questionnaires for the measurement of fear of childbirth in a UK population [paper presentation]. The Society for Reproductive and Infant Psychology Annual conference, Lodz, Poland.
- Slade, P. (2006). Towards a conceptual framework for understanding post-traumatic stress symptoms following childbirth and implications for further research. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 27(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/01674820600714582
- Slade, P., Balling, K., Sheen, K., & Houghton, G. (2019). Establishing a valid construct of fear of childbirth: Findings from in-depth interviews with women and midwives. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 19(1), 96. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-019-2241-7
- Slade, P., Pais, T., Fairlie, F., Simpson, A., & Sheen, K. (2016). The development of the Slade–Pais Expectations of Childbirth Scale (SPECS). Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 34(5), 495–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2016.1209300
- Sluijs, A. M., Wijma, K., Cleiren, M., van Lith, J. M. M., & Wijma, B. (2020). Preferred and actual mode of delivery in relation to fear of childbirth. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/0167482X.2019.1708319
- Stoll, K., Hauck, Y., Downe, S., Edmonds, J., Gross, M. M., Malott, A., … Hall, W. A. (2016). Cross-cultural development and psychometric evaluation of a measure to assess fear of childbirth prior to pregnancy. Sexual & Reproductive HealthCare, 8, 49–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2016.02.004
- Stoll, K., Swift, E. M., Fairbrother, N., Nethery, E., & Janssen, P. (2018). A systematic review of nonpharmacological prenatal interventions for pregnancy-specific anxiety and fear of childbirth. Birth, 45(1), 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/birt.12316
- Storksen, H. T., Garthus-Niegel, S., Vangen, S., & Eberhard-Gran, M. (2013). The impact of previous birth experiences on maternal fear of childbirth. Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica, 92(3), 318–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.12072
- Striebich, S., Mattern, E., & Ayerle, G. M. (2018). Support for pregnant women identified with fear of childbirth (FOC)/tokophobia - A systematic review of approaches and interventions. Midwifery, 61, 97–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2018.02.013
- Ternstrom, E. (2018). Identification and treatment of women with a fear of birth. Uppsala University.
- Ternstrom, E., Hildingsson, I., Haines, H., & Rubertsson, C. (2015). Higher prevalence of childbirth related fear in foreign born pregnant women–findings from a community sample in Sweden. Midwifery, 31(4), 445–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2014.11.011
- Thomson, G. M., & Downe, S. (2010). Changing the future to change the past: Women’s experiences of a positive birth following a traumatic birth experience. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 28(1), 102–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646830903295000
- Wax, J. R., Cartin, A., Pinette, M. G., & Blackstone, J. (2004). Patient choice cesarean: An evidence-based review. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 59(8), 601–616. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ogx.0000133942.76239.57
- Weaver, J., Browne, J., Aras-Payne, A., & Magill-Cuerden, J. (2012). A comprehensive systematic review of the impact of planned interventions offered to pregnant women who have requested a caesarean section as a result of tokophobia (fear of childbirth). JBI Library of Systematic Reviews, 10(Suppl), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.11124/jbisrir-2012-322
- Wigert, H., Nilsson, C., Dencker, A., Begley, C., Jangsten, E., Sparud-Lundin, C., … Patel, H. (2020). Women’s experiences of fear of childbirth: A metasynthesis of qualitative studies. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being, 15(1), 1704484. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2019.1704484
- Wijma, K., Wijma, B., & Zar, M. (1998). Psychometric aspects of the W-DEQ; a new questionnaire for the measurement of fear of childbirth. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 19(2), 84–97. https://doi.org/10.3109/01674829809048501
- World Health Organization. (2019). The ICD-11 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines.
- Yildiz, P. D., Ayers, S., & Phillips, L. (2017). The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in pregnancy and after birth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 634–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.10.009
- Zigic Antic, L., Nakic Rados, S., & Jokic-Begic, N. (2019). Are non-pregnant women afraid of childbirth? Prevalence and predictors of fear of childbirth in students. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 40(3), 226–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/0167482X.2018.1470162