Biased responding: a case series demonstrating a relationship between somatic symptoms and impaired recognition memory performance for traumatic brain injured individuals

REFERENCES

• BINDER, L. M.: Malingering following minor head trauma. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 4: 25–36, 1990.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• BRANDT, .1., RUBINSKY, E. and LASSEN, G.: Uncovering malingered amnesia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 444: 502–503, 1985.
   Google Scholar
• CHOUINARD, M.-J. and ROULEAU, I.: The 48-Pictures test: a two-alternative forced-choice recognition test for the detection of malingering. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3: 545–552, 1997.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• CONNOR, D. J., BONDI, M. W., SANDY, T. et al.: Development of a forced choice recognition test for the California Verbal Learning Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 12: 301, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• CONNOR, D. J., DRAKE, A. I., BONDI, M. W. et al.: Detection of feigned cognitive impairment in patients with a history of mild to severe closed head injury. Neurology, 48: 48–49, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• CULLUM, C. M., HEATON, R. K. and GRANT, I.: Psychogenic factors influencing neuropsycho-logical performance: somatoform disorders, factitious disorders, and malingering. In: H. O. Doerr and A. S. Carlin (editors) Forensic Neuropsychology (New York: Guilford Press), pp. 141–171, 1991.
   Google Scholar
• FAUST, D. and ACKLEY, M. A.: Did you think it was going to be easy? In: C. Reynolds (editor) Detection of Malingering During Head Injury Litigation (New York: Plenum Press), pp. 1–54, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• FREDERICK, R. I., SARFATY, S. D., JOHNSTON, J. D. et al.: Validation of a detector of response bias on a forced-choice test of nonverbal ability. Neuropsychology, 8: 118–125, 1994.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GOUVIER, W. D., HAYES, .1. S. and SMIROLD O, B. B.: The significance ofbase rates, test sensitivity, test specificity, and subjects' knowledge of symptoms in assessing TBI sequelae and malingering. In: C. Reynolds (editor) Detection of Malingering During Head Injury Litigation (New York: Plenum Press), pp. 1–54, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Hiscocx, M. and HISCOCK, C. K.: Refining the forced-choice method for the detection of malingering. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 11: 967–974, 1989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IVERSON, G. L. and BINDER, L. M.: Detecting exaggeration and malingering in neuropsycho-logical assessment. Journal of Head Trauma and Rehabilitation, 15: 829–858, 2000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IVERSON, G., FRANZEN, M. and MCCRACKEN, L.: Evaluation of an objective assessment tech-nique for the detection of malingered memory deficits. Law and Human Behaviour, 15: 667–676, 1991.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MILLIS, S., PUTNAM, S., ADAMS, K. et al.: The California Verbal Learning Test in the detection of incomplete effort in neuropsychological evaluation. Psychological Assessment, 7: 463–471, 1995.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NIES, K. J. and SwEET, J. J.: Neuropsychological assessment and malingering: a critical review of past and present strategies. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 9: 510–552, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• ROGER, R.: Introduction. In: R. Rogers (editor) Clinical assessment of malingering and deception, 2nd edn (New York: Guilford Press), pp. 1–19, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• SWEET, j. J., WOLF, P., SATTLEBERGER, E. et al.: Further investigation of traumatic brain injury versus insufficient effort with the California Verbal Learning Test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15: 105–113, 2000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn (Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association), 1994.
   Google Scholar
• REITAN, H. and WOLFSON, D.: The question of validity of neuropsychological test scores among head-injured litigants: development of a dissimulation index. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 11: 573–580, 1996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DENNEY, R. L.: Symptom validity testing of remote memory in a criminal forensic setting. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 11: 589–603, 1996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McM AHON, E. A. and S AT z, P.: Clinical neuropsychology: some forensic applications. In: S. B. Filskov, and T. J. Boll (editors) Handbook of clinical neuropsychology (New York: John Wiley and Sons), pp. 686–701, 1981.
   Google Scholar
• TRAVIN, S. and PROTTER, B.: Malingering and malingering-like behavior: some clinical and conceptual issues. Psychiatric Quarterly, 56: 189–197, 1984.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ROGERS, R.: Current status of clinical methods. In: R. Rogers (editor) Clinical Assessment of Malingering and Deception (New York: Guilford Press), pp. 293–308, 1988.
   Google Scholar
• GORMAN, E.: Defining malingering. Journal of Forensic Science, 27: 401–407, 1982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• POST, F.: Dementia, depression, and pseudodementia. In: D. F. Benson and D. Blumer (editors) Psychiatric Aspects of Neurologic Disease (New York: Grune and Stratton), pp. 99–120, 1975.
   Google Scholar
• WILLIAMS, J. M.: The malingering of memory disorders. In: C. Reynolds (editor) Detection of Malingering During Head Injury litigation (Oxford: Plenum Press), 1998.
   Google Scholar
• BOONE, K. B., Lu, P. and SHERMAN, D.: Validation of a new technique to detect malingering of cognitive symptoms: the b test. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 15, 227–241, 2000.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEE, G. P., LORING, D. W. and MARTIN, R. C.: Rey's 15-Item Visual Memory Test for the detection of malingering: normative observations on patients with neurological disorders. Psychological Assessment, 4: 43–46, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• DELIS, D. C., KRAMER, j. H., KAPLAN, E. et al.: California Verbal Learning Test Manual-Research Edition (Psychological Corporation, San Antonio), 1987.
   Google Scholar
• TRUEBLOOD, W.: Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of malingering and other invalid WAIS-R and clinical memory data. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16: 597–607, 1994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• TRUEBLOOD, W. and SCHMIDT, M.: Malingering and other validity considerations in the neuro-psychological evaluation of mild head injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 15: 578–590, 1993.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PANKRANTZ, L.: Symptom validity testing and symptom retraining: procedures for the assessment and treatment of functional deficits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47: 409–410, 1975.
   Google Scholar
• MEEHL, P. E. and ROSEN, A.: Antecedent probability and the efficiency of psychometric signs, patterns, or cutting scores. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 194–216.
   Google Scholar
• COHEN, J.: The earth is round (p 0.05). American Psychologist, 49: 997–1003, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• TVERSKY, A. and KAHNEMAN, D.: Belief in the law of small numbers. Psychological Bulletin, 76: 105–110, 1971.
   Google Scholar
• STERNBERG, S.: High speed scanning in human memory. Science, 153: 652–654, 1966.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FRIDLUND, A. J. and DELIS, D. C.: The California Verbal Learning Test-Administration and scoring system (San Antonia. The Psychological Corporation), 1987.
   Google Scholar
• HAMILTON, M.: A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 23: 56–62, 1960.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LEVIN, H. S., O'DONNELL, Y. M. and GROSSMAN, R. G.: The Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test: a practical scale to assess cognition after head injury. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 167: 675–684, 1979.
   Google Scholar
• WECHSLER, D.: WAIS-R Manual (New York: The Psychological Corporation), 1981.
   Google Scholar
• DEPAULO, B. M.: Spotting lies: can humans learn to do better? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 3: 83–86, 1994.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ECKMAN, P. and O'SULLIVAN, M.: Who can catch a liar? American Psychologist, 46: 913–920, 1991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• HEATON, R. K., SMITH, H. H., JR., LEHMAN, R. A. W. et al.: Prospects for faking believable deficits on neuropsychological testing. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46: 892–900, 1978.
   Google Scholar
• FAUST, D., HART, K. and GUILMETIE, T. J.: Pediatric malingering: the capacity of children to fake believable deficits on neuropsychological testing. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56: 578–582, 1988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAUST, D., HART, K., GUILMETTE, T. J. et al.: Neuropsychologists' capacity to detect adolescent malingers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19: 508–515, 1988.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• PANKRANTZ, L. and BINDER, L. M.: Malingering on intellectual and neuropsychological meas-ures. In: R. Rogers (editor) Clinical Assessment of Malingering and Deception, 2nd edn (New York, Guilford), pp. 223–236, 1997.
   Google Scholar
• GREIFFENSTEIN, M., GOLA, T. and BAKER, W.: MMPI-2 validity scales versus domain specific measures in the detection of factitious traumatic brain injury. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 9: 230–240, 74–107, 1995.
   Google Scholar
• VAN Z O MEREN, A. H., BROUWER, W. H. and D EELMAN, B. G.: Attentional deficits: the riddle of selectivity, speed and altertness. In: D. N. Brooks (editor) Closed Head Injury: Psychological, Social and Family Consequences (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 1984.
   Google Scholar
• VAN ZOMEREN, A. H. and VAN DEN BURG, W.: Residual complaints of patients two years after severe head injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 48: 21–28, 1985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BRANDT, J.: Malingered amnesia. In: R. Rogers (editor) Clinical Assessment of Malingering and Deception (New York: Guilford Press), pp. 65–83, 1988.
   Google Scholar
• FINLAYSON, M. A. J. and BIRD, D. R.: Psychopathology and neuropsychological deficit. In: H. O. Doerr and A. S. Carlin (editors) Forensic Neuropsychology (New York: Guilford Press), pp. 123–140, 1991.
   Google Scholar
• CARTER, A. B.: The prognosis of certain hysterical symptoms. British Medical Journal, 1: 1076–1079, 1949.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LJUNGBERG, L.: Hysteria: a clinical prognostic, and genetic study. Acta Psychiatricia Scandanavica, 32: 1957.
   Google Scholar
• FL OR-HENRY, P., FR OMM-AU CH, D., TAPPER, M. et al.: A neuropsychological study of the stable syndrome of hysteria. Biological Psychiatry, 16: 731–742, 1981.
   Google Scholar
• NEMETH, A. J.: Behavior-descriptive data on cognitive, personality, and somatic residua after relatively mild brain trauma: studying the syndrome as a whole. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 11: 677–695, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• LEZAK, M. D.: Neuropsychological assessment, 3rd edn (New York: Oxford University Press), 1995.
   Google Scholar
• GRONWALL, D. and WRIGHTSON, P.: Memory and information processing capacity after closed head injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 44: 889–895, 1981.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• GRONWALL, D. and WRIGHTSON, P.: Delayed recovery of intellectual function after minor head injury. Lancet, 2: 605–609, 1974.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar