Measures of emotion: A review

References

• Adolphs , R. 2002 . Recognizing emotion from facial expressions: Psychological and neurological mechanisms . Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews , 1 ( 1 ) : 21 – 62 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Allen , J. J. B. , Urry , H. L. , Hitt , S. K. and Coan , J. A. 2004 . The stability of resting frontal electroencephalographic asymmetry in depression . Psychophysiology , 41 ( 2 ) : 269 – 280 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , A. K. and Phelps , E. A. 2001 . Lesions of the human amygdala impair enhanced perception of emotionally salient events . Nature , 411 ( 6835 ) : 305 – 309 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , A. K. and Phelps , E. A. 2002 . Is the human amygdala critical for the subjective experience of emotion? Evidence of intact dispositional affect in patients with amygdala lesions . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 14 ( 5 ) : 709 – 720 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• App , B. , McIntosh , D. , & Reed , C. 2007 . A social-functional approach to emotion communication: “How” depends on “why” . Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology .
   Google Scholar
• Arnold , M. B. 1960 . Emotion and personality , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bachorowski , J.-A. 1999 . Vocal expression and perception of emotion . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 8 ( 2 ) : 53 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachorowski , J.-A. and Owren , M. J. 1995 . Vocal expression of emotion: Acoustic properties of speech are associated with emotional intensity and context . Psychological Science , 6 ( 4 ) : 219 – 224 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banse , R. and Scherer , K. R. 1996 . Acoustic profiles in vocal emotion expression . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 70 ( 3 ) : 614 – 636 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bard , P. 1928 . A diencephalic mechanism for the expression of rage with special reference to the sympathetic nervous system . American Journal of Physiology , 84 : 490 – 515 .
   Google Scholar
• Barrett , L. F. 2006a . Are emotions natural kinds? . Perspectives in Psychological Science , 1 : 28 – 58 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , L. F. 2006b . Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 10 ( 1 ) : 20 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , L. F. , Robin , L. , Pietromonaco , P. R. and Eyssell , K. M. 1998 . Are women the “more emotional” sex? Evidence from emotional experiences in social context . Cognition and Emotion , 12 ( 4 ) : 555 – 578 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , L. F. and Russell , J. A. 1999 . The structure of current affect: Controversies and emerging consensus . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 8 ( 1 ) : 10 – 14 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , L. F. and Wager , T. D. 2006 . The structure of emotion: Evidence from neuroimaging studies . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 15 ( 2 ) : 79 – 83 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berntson , G. G. and Cacioppo , J. T. 2000 . “ From homeostasis to allodynamic regulation ” . In Handbook of psychophysiology , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Cacioppo , J. T. , Tassinary , L. G. and Berntson , G. G. 459 – 481 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Berridge , K. C. 1999 . “ Pleasure, pain, desire, and dread: Hidden core processes of emotion ” . In Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology , Edited by: Kahneman , D. , Diener , E. and Schwarz , N. 525 – 557 . New York : Russell Sage Foundation .
   Google Scholar
• Bonanno , G. A. and Keltner , D. 2004 . The coherence of emotion systems: Comparing “on-line” measures of appraisal and facial expressions, and self-report [Brief Report] . Cognition and Emotion , 18 ( 3 ) : 431 – 444 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley , M. M. , Cuthbert , B. N. and Lang , P. J. 1990 . Startle reflex modification: Emotion or attention? . Psychophysiology , 27 ( 5 ) : 513 – 522 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley , M. M. , Cuthbert , B. N. and Lang , P. J. 1993 . Pictures as prepulse: Attention and emotion in startle modification . Psychophysiology , 30 ( 5 ) : 541 – 545 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley , M. M. and Lang , P. J. 2000a . Affective reactions to acoustic stimuli . Psychophysiology , 37 ( 2 ) : 204 – 215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley , M. M. and Lang , P. J. 2000b . “ Measuring emotion: Behavior, feeling, and physiology ” . In Cognitive neuroscience of emotion , Edited by: Lane , R. D. and Nadel , L. 242 – 276 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Buck , R. 1980 . Nonverbal behavior and the theory of emotion: The facial feedback hypothesis . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 38 ( 5 ) : 811 – 824 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buck , R. 1999 . The biological affects: A typology . Psychological Review , 106 ( 2 ) : 301 – 336 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo , J. , Berntson , G. G. , Klein , D. J. and Poehlmann , K. M. 1997 . The psychophysiology of emotion across the lifespan . Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics , 17 : 27 – 74 .
   Google Scholar
• Cacioppo , J. T. , Berntson , G. G. , Larsen , J. T. , Poehlmann , K. M. and Ito , T. A. 2000 . “ The psychophysiology of emotion ” . In The handbook of emotion , Edited by: Lewis , M. and Haviland-Jones , J. M. New York : Guildford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cahill , L. , Haier , R. , Fallon , J. , Akire , M. , Tang , C. Keator , D. 1996 . Amygdala activity at encoding correlated with long-term, free recall of emotional information . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 93 : 8016 – 8321 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canli , T. 2004 . Functional brain mapping of extraversion and neuroticism: Learning from individual differences in emotion processing . Journal of Personality , 72 ( 6 ) : 1105 – 1132 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannon , W. B. 1931 . Again the James–Lange and the thalamic theories of emotion . Psychological Review , 38 ( 4 ) : 281 – 295 .
   Google Scholar
• Carver , C. S. 2004 . “ Self-regulation of action and affect ” . In Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications , Edited by: Baumeister , R. F. and Vohs , K. D. 13 – 39 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Christie , I. C. and Friedman , B. H. 2004 . Autonomic specificity of discrete emotion and dimensions of affective space: A multivariate approach . International Journal of Psychophysiology , 51 ( 2 ) : 143 – 153 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohn , J. F. and Ekman , P. 2005 . “ Measuring facial action ” . In The new handbook of methods in nonverbal behavior research , Edited by: Harrigan , J. A. , Rosenthal , R. and Scherer , K. R. 9 – 64 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cook , E. III and Turpin , G. 1997 . “ Differentiating orienting, startle, and defense responses: The role of affect and its implications for psychopathology ” . In Attention and orienting: Sensory and motivational processes , Edited by: Lang , P. J. , Simons , R. F. and Balaban , M. T. 137 – 164 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Cuthbert , B. N. , Bradley , M. M. and Lang , P. J. 1996 . Probing picture perception: Activation and emotion . Psychophysiology , 33 ( 2 ) : 103 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale , A. M. and Sereno , M. I. 1993 . Improved localization of cortical activity by combining EEG and MEG with MRI cortical surface reconstruction: A linear approach . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 5 ( 2 ) : 162 – 176 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darwin , C. 1965 . The expression of the emotions in man and animals . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press . (Original work published 1872)
   Google Scholar
• Davidson , R. J. 1999 . “ Neuropsychological perspectives on affective styles and their cognitive consequences ” . In Handbook of cognition and emotion , Edited by: Dalgleish , T. and Power , M. J. 103 – 123 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Davidson , R. J. , Ekman , P. , Saron , C. D. , Senulis , J. A. and Friesen , W. V. 1990 . Approach–withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: Emotional expression and brain physiology I . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 58 ( 2 ) : 330 – 341 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , M. 1989 . Neural systems involved in fear-potentiated startle . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 563 : 165 – 183 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeSteno , D. , Petty , R. E. , Wegener , D. T. and Rucker , D. D. 2000 . Beyond valence in the perception of likelihood: The role of emotion specificity . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 78 ( 3 ) : 397 – 416 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Detre , J. A. and Floyd , T. F. 2000 . Functional MRI and its applications to the clinical neurosciences . Neuroscientist , 7 : 64 – 79 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimberg , U. , Thunberg , M. and Elmehed , K. 2000 . Unconscious facial reactions to emotional facial expressions . Psychological Science , 11 ( 1 ) : 86 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duffy , E. 1962 . Activation and behavior , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. 1992 . Facial expressions of emotion: New findings, new questions . Psychological Science , 3 : 34 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. 1999 . “ Basic emotions ” . In Handbook of cognition and emotion , Edited by: Dalgleish , T. and Power , M. J. 45 – 60 . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. , Davidson , R. J. and Friesen , W. V. 1990 . The Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology II . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 58 ( 2 ) : 342 – 353 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. and Friesen , W. V. 1971 . Constants across cultures in the face and emotion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 17 ( 2 ) : 124 – 129 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. and Friesen , W. V. 1978 . Facial action coding system: A technique for the measurement of facial movement , Palo Alto, CA : Consulting Psychologists Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. , Friesen , W. V. and Hager , J. C. 2002 . The facial action coding system , Salt Lake City, UT : Research Nexus eBook .
   Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. , Levenson , R. W. and Friesen , W. V. 1983 . Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions . Science , 221 ( 4616 ) : 1208 – 1210 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. , Sorenson , E. R. and Friesen , W. V. 1969 . Pan-cultural elements in facial displays of emotion . Science , 164 ( 3875 ) : 86 – 88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellsworth , P. C. 1994 . William James and emotion: Is a century of fame worth a century of misunderstanding? . Psychological Review , 101 ( 2 ) : 222 – 229 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez-Dols , J. M. , & Ruiz-Belda , M. A. 1995 . Expression of emotion versus expressions of emotions: Everyday conceptions of spontaneous facial behavior . In Everyday conceptions of emotion: An introduction to the psychology, anthropology and linguistics of emotion ( Vol. 81 ). New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Frank , M. G. , Ekman , P. and Friesen , W. V. 1993 . Behavioral markers and recognizability of the smile of enjoyment . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 ( 1 ) : 83 – 93 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank , M. J. , O'Reilly , R. C. and Curran , T. 2006 . When memory fails, intuition reigns: Midazolam enhances implicit inference in humans . Psychological Science , 17 ( 8 ) : 700 – 707 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridlund , A. J. 1991 . Sociality of solitary smiling: Potentiation by an implicit audience . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 ( 2 ) : 229 – 240 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fridlund , A. J. , Ekman , P. and Oster , H. 1987 . “ Facial expressions of emotion ” . In Nonverbal behavior and communication , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Siegman , A. W. and Feldstein , S. 143 – 223 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Fridlund , A. J. , Schwartz , G. E. and Fowler , S. C. 1984 . Pattern recognition of self-reported emotional state from multiple-site facial EMG activity during affective imagery . Psychophysiology , 21 ( 6 ) : 622 – 637 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frijda , N. H. 1986 . The emotions , Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frijda , N. H. 1988 . The laws of emotion . American Psychologist , 43 ( 5 ) : 349 – 358 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham , F. K. 1979 . “ Distinguishing among orienting, defense, and startle reflexes ” . In The orienting reflex in humans , Edited by: Kimmel , H. D. , Olst , E. H. V. and Orlebeke , J. F. Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Gross , J. J. 2007 . Handbook of emotion regulation , New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Haidt , J. and Keltner , D. 1999 . Culture and facial expression: Open-ended methods find more expressions and a gradient of recognition . Cognition and Emotion , 13 ( 3 ) : 225 – 266 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmon-Jones , E. and Allen , J. J. B. 1998 . Anger and frontal brain activity: EEG asymmetry consistent with approach motivation despite negative affective valence . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 ( 5 ) : 1310 – 1316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harmon-Jones , E. , Lueck , L. , Fearn , M. and Harmon-Jones , C. 2006 . The effect of personal relevance and approach-related action expectation on relative left frontal cortical activity . Psychological Science , 17 ( 5 ) : 434 – 440 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawk , L. W. and Cook , E. W. III . 1997 . Affective modulation of tactile startle . Psychophysiology , 34 ( 1 ) : 23 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heller , W. , Schmidtke , J. I. , Nitschke , J. B. , Koven , N. S. and Miller , G. A. 2002 . “ States, traits, and symptoms: Investigating the neural correlates of emotion, personality, and psychopathology ” . In Advances in personality science , Edited by: Cervone , D. and Mischel , W. 106 – 126 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hess , U. , Banse , R. and Kappas , A. 1995 . The intensity of facial expression is determined by underlying affective state and social situation . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 69 ( 2 ) : 280 – 288 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holland , P. C. and Gallagher , M. 1999 . Amygdala circuitry in attentional and representational processes . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 3 ( 2 ) : 65 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Izard , C. E. 1971 . The face of emotion , East Norwalk, CT : Appleton-Century-Crofts .
   Google Scholar
• Izard , C. E. 2007 . Levels of emotion and levels of consciousness . Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 30 ( 1 ) : 96 – 98 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James , W. 1884 . What is an emotion? . Mind , 9 : 188 – 205 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnstone , T. and Scherer , K. R. 2000 . “ Vocal communication of emotion ” . In Handbook of Emotions , Edited by: Lewis , M. and Haviland-Jones , J. M. 220 – 235 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Juslin , P. N. and Scherer , K. R. 2005 . “ Vocal expression of affect ” . In The new handbook of methods in nonverbal behavior research , Edited by: Harrigan , J. A. , Rosenthal , R. and Scherer , K. R. 65 – 135 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kagan , J. 2007 . A trio of concerns . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 2 ( 4 ) : 361 – 376 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappas , A. , Hess , U. and Scherer , K. R. 1991 . “ Voice and emotion ” . In Fundamentals of nonverbal behavior , Edited by: Feldman , R. S. and Rime , B. 200 – 238 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Keele , S. W. , Ivry , R. , Mayr , U. , Hazeltine , E. and Heuer , H. 2003 . The cognitive and neural architecture of sequence representation . Psychological Review , 110 ( 2 ) : 316 – 339 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keltner , D. and Bonanno , G. A. 1997 . A study of laughter and dissociation: Distinct correlates of laughter and smiling during bereavement . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 ( 4 ) : 687 – 702 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keltner , D. and Buswell , B. N. 1997 . Embarrassment: Its distinct form and appeasement functions . Psychological Bulletin , 122 ( 3 ) : 250 – 270 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiefer , S. W. and Orr , M. R. 1992 . Taste avoidance, but not aversion, learning in rats lacking gustatory cortex . Behavioral Neuroscience , 106 ( 1 ) : 140 – 146 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch , M. and Schnitzler , H.-U. 1997 . The acoustic startle response in rats—Circuits mediating evocation, inhibition and potentiation . Behavioural Brain Research , 89 ( 1–2 ) : 35 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konorski , J. 1967 . Integrative activity of the brain , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kraut , R. E. and Johnston , R. E. 1979 . Social and emotional messages of smiling: An ethological approach . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 ( 9 ) : 1539 – 1553 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreibig , S. D. , Wilhelm , F. H. , Roth , W. T. and Gross , J. J. 2007 . Cardiovascular, electrodermal, and respiratory response patterns to fear- and sadness-inducing films . Psychophysiology , 44 ( 5 ) : 787 – 806 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kring , A. M. and Sloan , D. M. 2007 . The facial expression coding system (FACES): Development, validation, and utility . Psychological Assessment , 19 ( 2 ) : 210 – 224 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacey , J. 1967 . “ Somatic response patterning and stress: Some revisions of activation theory ” . In Psychological stress: Issues in research , Edited by: Appley , M. H. and Trumbull , R. New York : Appleton-Century-Crofts .
   Google Scholar
• Lacey , J. I. , Bateman , D. E. and Vanlehn , R. 1953 . Autonomic response specificity: An experimental study . Psychosomatic Medicine , 15 : 8 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landis , C. and Hunt , W. 1939 . The startle pattern , Oxford, , UK : Farrar & Rinehart .
   Google Scholar
• Lane , R. D. , Ahern , G. L. , Schwartz , G. E. and Kaszniak , A. W. 1997 . Is alexithymia the emotional equivalent of blindsight? . Biological Psychiatry , 42 ( 9 ) : 834 – 844 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. 1988 . “ What are the data of emotion? ” . In Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation , Edited by: Hamilton , V. , Bower , G. H. and Frijda , N. H. 173 – 191 . New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. 1994 . The varieties of emotional experience: A meditation on James–Lange theory . Psychological Review , 101 ( 2 ) : 211 – 221 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. 1995 . The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention . American Psychologist , 50 ( 5 ) : 372 – 385 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. , Bradley , M. M. and Cuthbert , B. N. 1990 . Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex . Psychological Review , 97 ( 3 ) : 377 – 395 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. , Bradley , M. M. and Cuthbert , B. N. 1997 . “ Motivated attention: Affect, activation, and action ” . In Attention and orienting: Sensory and motivational processes , Edited by: Lang , P. J. , Simons , R. F. and Balaban , M. T. 97 – 135 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. , Greenwald , M. K. , Bradley , M. M. and Hamm , A. O. 1993 . Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions . Psychophysiology , 30 ( 3 ) : 261 – 273 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen , J. T. , Berntson , G. G. , Poehlmann , K. M. , Ito , T. A. , & Cacioppo , J. T. (in press) . The psychophysiology of emotion . In M. Lewis , J. M. Haviland-Jones , & L. F. Barrett The handbook of emotions (3rd ed.) . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Larsen , J. T. , McGraw , A. P. and Cacioppo , J. T. 2001 . Can people feel happy and sad at the same time? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 81 ( 4 ) : 684 – 696 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen , J. T. , Norris , C. J. and Cacioppo , J. T. 2003 . Effects of positive and negative affect on electromyographic activity over zygomaticus major and corrugator supercilii . Psychophysiology , 40 ( 5 ) : 776 – 785 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen , R. J. and Prizmic-Larsen , Z. 2006 . “ Measuring emotions: Implications of a multimethod perspective ” . In Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology , Edited by: Eid , M. and Diener , E. 337 – 351 . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. 1991 . Emotion and adaptation , Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• LeDoux , J. E. 1996 . The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life , New York : Simon & Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• LeDoux , J. E. 2000 . Emotion circuits in the brain . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 23 : 155 – 184 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leinonen , L. , Hiltunen , T. , Linnankoski , I. and Laakso , M.-L. 1997 . Expression of emotional-motivational connotations with a one-word utterance . Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , 102 ( 3 ) : 1853 – 1863 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner , J. S. , Dahl , R. E. , Hariri , A. R. and Taylor , S. E. 2007 . Facial expressions of emotion reveal neuroendocrine and cardiovascular stress responses . Biological Psychiatry , 61 ( 2 ) : 253 – 260 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levenson , R. W. 2003 . “ Blood, sweat, and fears: The autonomic architecture of emotion ” . In Emotions inside out: 130 years after Darwin's: The expression of the emotions in man and animals , Edited by: Ekman , P. , Campos , J. J. , Davidson , R. J. and de Waal , F. B. M. 348 – 366 . New York : New York University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Libby , W. L. , Lacey , B. C. and Lacey , J. I. 1973 . Pupillary and cardiac activity during visual attention . Psychophysiology , 10 ( 3 ) : 270 – 294 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallan , K. M. and Lipp , O. V. 2007 . Does emotion modulate the blink reflex in human conditioning? Startle potentiation during pleasant and unpleasant cues in the picture–picture paradigm . Psychophysiology , 44 ( 5 ) : 737 – 748 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malmo , R. B. 1959 . Activation: A neuropsychological dimension . Psychological Review , 66 ( 6 ) : 367 – 386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malmo , R. B. , Shagrass , C. and Davis , F. H. 1950 . Symptom specificity and bodily reactions during psychiatric interview . Psychosomatic Medicine , 12 : 362 – 376 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandler , G. 1975 . Mind and emotion , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Matthews , G. and Gilliland , K. 1999 . The personality theories of H. J. Eysenck and J. A. Gray: A comparative review . Personality and Individual Differences , 26 ( 4 ) : 583 – 626 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauss , I. B. , Levenson , R. W. , McCarter , L. , Wilhelm , F. H. and Gross , J. J. 2005 . The tie that binds? Coherence among emotion experience, behavior, and physiology . Emotion , 5 ( 2 ) : 175 – 190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauss , I. B. , Wilhelm , F. H. and Gross , J. J. 2004 . Is there less to social anxiety than meets the eye? Emotion experience, expression, and bodily responding . Cognition and Emotion , 18 ( 5 ) : 631 – 662 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazur , A. 2005 . Biosociology of dominance and deference , Lanham, MD : Rowman & Littlefield .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , M. W. , Patrick , C. J. and Levenston , G. K. 2002 . Affective imagery and the startle response: Probing mechanisms of modulation during pleasant scenes, personal experiences and discrete negative emotions . Psychophysiology , 39 ( 4 ) : 519 – 529 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , T. R. , Thompson , L. , Peterson , E. and Cronk , R. 1997 . Temporal adjustments in the evaluation of events: The “rosy view” . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 33 ( 4 ) : 421 – 448 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy , F. C. , Nimmo-Smith , I. and Lawrence , A. D. 2003 . Functional neuroanatomy of emotions: A meta-analysis. Cognitive . Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience , 3 ( 3 ) : 207 – 233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murray , E. 2007 . The amygdala, reward and emotion . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 11 : 489 – 497 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obrist , P. A. , Webb , R. A. , Sutterer , J. R. and Howard , J. L. 1970 . The cardiac–somatic relationship: Some reformulations . Psychophysiology , 6 ( 5 ) : 569 – 587 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Öhman , A. , Hamm , A. and Hugdahl , K. 2000 . “ Cognition and the autonomic nervous system: Orienting, anticipation, and conditioning ” . In Handbook of psychophysiology , 2nd ed. , Edited by: Cacioppo , J. T. , Tassinary , L. G. and Berntson , G. G. 533 – 575 . New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Panksepp , J. 1998 . Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Panksepp , J. 1999 . Emotions as viewed by psychoanalysis and neuroscience: An exercise in consilience . Neuro-Psychoanalysis , 1 ( 1 ) : 15 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Panksepp , J. 2007 . Neurologizing the psychology of affects: How appraisal-based constructivism and basic emotion theory can coexist . Perspectives on Psychological Science , 2 ( 3 ) : 281 – 295 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick , C. J. 1994 . Emotion and psychopathy: Startling new insights . Psychophysiology , 31 ( 4 ) : 319 – 330 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulhus , D. L. and John , O. P. 1998 . Egoistic and moralistic biases in self-perception: The interplay of self-deceptive styles with basic traits and motives . Journal of Personality , 66 ( 6 ) : 1025 – 1060 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paulhus , D. L. and Reid , D. B. 1991 . Enhancement and denial in socially desirable responding . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 60 ( 2 ) : 307 – 317 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennebaker , J. W. 1982 . Physical symptoms associated with blood pressure . Psychophysiology , 19 ( 2 ) : 201 – 210 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pessoa , L. , Padmala , S. and Ungerleider , L. G. 2005 . Quantitative prediction of perceptual decisions during near-threshold fear detection . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 102 ( 15 ) : 5612 – 5617 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phan , K. L. , Wager , T. D. , Taylor , S. F. and Liberzon , I. 2002 . Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI . NeuoroImage , 16 : 331 – 348 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picard , R. W. , Vyzas , E. and Healey , J. 2001 . Toward machine emotional intelligence: Analysis of affective physiological state . IEEE Transactions Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence , 23 ( 10 ) : 1172 – 1191 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittam , J. , Gallois , C. and Callan , V. 1990 . The long-term spectrum and perceived emotion . Speech Communication , 9 ( 3 ) : 177 – 187 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Planalp , S. 1998 . “ Communicating emotion in everyday life: Cues, channels, and processes ” . In Handbook of communication and emotion: Research, theory, applications, and contexts , Edited by: Andersen , P. A. and Guerrero , L. K. 29 – 48 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Protopapas , A. and Lieberman , P. 1997 . Fundamental frequency of phonation and perceived emotional stress . Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , 101 ( 4, Pt. 1 ) : 2267 – 2277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rachman , S. 1978 . Human fears: A three systems analysis . Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy , 7 ( 4 ) : 237 – 245 .
   Google Scholar
• Reisenzein , R. 2000 . Exploring the strength of association between the components of emotion syndromes: The case of surprise . Cognition and Emotion , 14 ( 1 ) : 1 – 38 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , M. D. and Clore , G. L. 2002 . Episodic and semantic knowledge in emotional self-report: Evidence for two judgment processes . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 83 ( 1 ) : 198 – 215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , M. D. and Neighbors , C. 2006 . “ Catching the mind in action: Implicit methods in personality research and assessment ” . In Handbook of multimethod measurement in psychology , Edited by: Eid , M. and Diener , E. 115 – 125 . Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , M. D. , & Sedikides , C. (in press) . Traits and the self: Toward an integration . In P. J. Corr & G. Matthews Handbook of personality . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , E. L. and Ekman , P. 1994 . Coherence between expressive and experiential systems in emotion . Cognition and Emotion , 8 ( 3 ) : 201 – 229 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruch , W. 1995 . Will the real relationship between facial expression and affective experience please stand up: The case of exhilaration . Cognition and Emotion , 9 ( 1 ) : 33 – 58 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , J. A. 1980 . A circumplex model of affect . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 39 ( 6 ) : 1161 – 1178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , J. A. 1994 . Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expressions? A review of the cross-cultural studies . Psychological Bulletin , 115 ( 1 ) : 102 – 141 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , J. A. and Barrett , L. F. 1999 . Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 76 ( 5 ) : 805 – 819 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusting , C. L. 1998 . Personality, mood, and cognitive processing of emotional information: Three conceptual frameworks . Psychological Bulletin , 124 ( 2 ) : 165 – 196 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabatinelli , D. , Bradley , M. M. and Lang , P. J. 2001 . Affective startle modulation in anticipation and perception . Psychophysiology , 38 ( 4 ) : 719 – 722 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. 1984 . Emotion as a multicomponent process: A model and some cross-cultural data . Review of Personality & Social Psychology , 5 : 37 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. , Bance , R. , Wallbott , H. G. and Goldbeck , T. 1991 . Vocal cues in emotion encoding and decoding . Motivation and Emotion , 15 : 123 – 148 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. and Wallbott , H. G. 1994 . Evidence for universality and cultural variation of differential emotion response patterning . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 66 : 310 – 328 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider , K. and Josephs , I. 1991 . The expressive and communicative functions of preschool children's smiles in an achievement-situation . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 15 ( 3 ) : 185 – 198 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneirla , T. C. 1959 . “ An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal ” . In Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1959 , Edited by: Jones , M. R. 1 – 42 . Lincoln, NE : University of Nebraska .
   Google Scholar
• Shedler , J. , Mayman , M. and Manis , M. 1993 . The illusion of mental health . American Psychologist , 48 ( 11 ) : 1117 – 1131 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. and Ellsworth , P. C. 1985 . Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 ( 4 ) : 813 – 838 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stemmler , G. 1989 . The autonomic differentiation of emotions revisited: Convergent and discriminant validation . Psychophysiology , 26 ( 6 ) : 617 – 632 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stemmler , G. 1992 . Differential psychophysiology: Persons in situations , Berlin, , Germany : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Stemmler , G. 2004 . “ Physiological processes during emotion ” . In The regulation of emotion , Edited by: Philippot , P. and Feldman , R. S. 33 – 70 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Stemmler , G. , Heldmann , M. , Pauls , C. A. and Scherer , T. 2001 . Constraints for emotion specificity in fear and anger: The context counts . Psychophysiology , 38 ( 2 ) : 275 – 291 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stepper , S. and Strack , F. 1993 . Proprioceptive determinants of emotional and nonemotional feelings . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 : 211 – 220 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Storbeck , J. , Robinson , M. D. and McCourt , M. E. 2006 . Semantic processing precedes affect retrieval: The neurological case for cognitive primacy in visual processing . Review of General Psychology , 10 ( 1 ) : 41 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton , S. K. and Davidson , R. J. 1997 . Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the behavioral approach and inhibition systems . Psychological Science , 8 ( 3 ) : 204 – 210 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , S. E. , Lerner , J. S. , Sherman , D. K. , Sage , R. M. and McDowell , N. K. 2003 . Are self-enhancing cognitions associated with healthy or unhealthy biological profiles? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 85 ( 4 ) : 605 – 615 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tellegen , A. , Watson , D. and Clark , L. A. 1999 . On the dimensional and hierarchical structure of affect . Psychological Science , 10 ( 4 ) : 297 – 303 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomarken , A. J. , Davidson , R. J. and Henriques , J. B. 1990 . Resting frontal brain asymmetry predicts affective responses to films . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 : 791 – 801 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tompkins , S. S. 1995 . Exploring affect , Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tracy , J. L. , & Matsumoto , D. (in press) . More than a thrill: Cross cultural evidence for spontaneous displays of pride in response to athletic success . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences .
   Google Scholar
• Tracy , J. L. and Robins , R. W. 2004 . Show your pride: Evidence for a discrete emotion expression . Psychological Science , 15 ( 3 ) : 194 – 197 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tracy , J. L. , Robins , R. W. and Lagattuta , K. H. 2005 . Can children recognize pride? . Emotion , 5 ( 3 ) : 251 – 257 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van den Stock , J. , Righart , R. and de Gelder , B. 2007 . Body expressions influence recognition of emotions in the face and voice . Emotion , 7 ( 3 ) : 487 – 494 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow , N. D. , Rosen , B. and Farde , L. 1997 . Imaging the living human brain: Magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography . Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 94 : 2787 – 2788 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrana , S. R. 1993 . The psychophysiology of disgust: Differentiating negative emotional contexts with facial EMG . Psychophysiology , 30 ( 3 ) : 279 – 286 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrana , S. R. , Spence , E. L. and Lang , P. J. 1988 . The startle probe response: A new measure of emotion? . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 97 ( 4 ) : 487 – 491 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wager , T. D. , Barrett , L. F. , Bliss-Moreau , E. , Lindquist , K. , Duncan , S. Kober , H. 2008 . “ The neuroimaging of emotion ” . In Handbook of emotions , Edited by: Lewis , M. , Haviland-Jones , J. M. and Barrett , L. F. 249 – 271 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wager , T. D. , Phan , K. L. , Liberzon , I. and Taylor , S. F. 2003 . Valence, gender, and lateralization of functional brain anatomy in emotion: A meta-analysis of findings from neuroimaging . NeuroImage , 19 : 513 – 531 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson , D. 2000 . Mood and temperament , New York : Guildford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , D. , Wiese , D. , Vaidya , J. and Tellegen , A. 1999 . The two general activation systems of affect: Structural findings, evolutionary considerations, and psychobiological evidence . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 76 ( 5 ) : 820 – 838 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welte , J. W. and Russell , M. 1993 . Influence of socially desirable responding in a study of stress and substance abuse . Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research , 17 ( 4 ) : 758 – 761 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whalen , P. J. 1998 . Fear, vigilance, and ambiguity: Initial neuroimaging studies of the human amygdala . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 7 ( 6 ) : 177 – 188 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar