Low emotional response to traumatic footage is associated with an absence of analogue flashbacks: An individual participant data meta-analysis of 16 trauma film paradigm experiments

REFERENCES

• Aldao, A., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2013). One versus many: Capturing the use of multiple emotion regulation strategies in response to an emotion-eliciting stimulus. Cognition & Emotion, 27, 753–760. doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.739998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Text revision (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
   Google Scholar
• Bonanno, G. A., Westphal, M., & Mancini, A. D. (2011). Resilience to loss and potential trauma. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 511–535. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourne, C., Frasquilho, F., Roth, A. D., & Holmes, E. A. (2010). Is it mere distraction? Peri-traumatic verbal tasks can increase analogue flashbacks but reduce voluntary memory performance. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41(3), 316–324. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.03.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourne, C., Mackay, C. E., & Holmes, E. A. (2013). The neural basis of flashback formation: The impact of viewing trauma. Psychological Medicine, 43, 1521–1533. doi:10.1017/S0033291712002358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, R. J., Moulin, C. J. A., & Kvavilashvli, L. (2013). Involuntary autobiographical memories. The Psychologist, 26, 190–193.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.4.670
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, R. J., Danquah, A. N., Miles, E., Holmes, E., & Poliakoff, E. (2010). Attention to the body in nonclinical somatoform dissociation depends on emotional state. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 69(3), 249–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Debray, T. P. A., Moons, K. G. M., Abo-Zaid, G. M. A., Koffijberg, H., & Riley, R. D. (2013). Individual participant data meta-analysis for a binary outcome: One-stage or two-stage? PLoS One, 8, e60650. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060650
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deeprose, C., Zhang, S., Bossward, H., Dalgleish, T., & Holmes, E. A. (2011). Imagery in the aftermath of viewing a traumatic film: Using cogntive tasks to modulate the development of involuntary memory. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(2), 758–764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickstein, B. D., Suvak, M., Litz, B. T., & Adler, A. B. (2010). Heterogeneity in the course of posttraumatic stress disorder: Trajectories of symptomatology. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 331–339. doi:10.1002/jts.20523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00123-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Steil, R., Clohessy, S., Wenninger, K., & Winter, H. (2002). The nature of intrusive memories after trauma: The warning signal hypothesis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 995–1002. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00077-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B. (1995). The posttraumatic diagnostic scale (PDS) manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Frankel, F. H. (1994). The concept of flashbacks in historical perspective. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 42, 321–336. doi:10.1080/00207149408409362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011). Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A dual-process framework. Cognition & Emotion, 25, 400–412. doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.544160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagenaars, M. A., van Minnen, A., Holmes, E. A., Brewin, C. R., & Hoogduin, K. A. L. (2008). The effect of hypnotically induced somatoform dissociation on the development of intrusions after an aversive film. Cognition & Emotion, 22(5), 944–963.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., & Bourne, C. (2008). Inducing and modulating intrusive emotional memories: A review of the trauma film paradigm. Acta Psychologica, 127, 553–566. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., Brewin, C. R., & Hennessy, R. G. (2004). Trauma films, information processing, and intrusive memory development. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(1), 3–22. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., James, E. L., Coode-Bate, T., & Deeprose, C. (2009). Can playing the computer game “Tetris” reduce the build-up of flashbacks for Trauma? A Proposal from Cognitive Science. Plos One, 4(1), e4153. doi:10.1371/Journal.Pone.0004153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., James, E. L., Kilford, E. J., & Deeprose, C. (2010). Key steps in developing a cognitive vaccine against traumatic flashbacks: Visuospatial Tetris versus verbal Pub Quiz. PLoS ONE, 5(11), e13706. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, E. L. (2013). Exploring the use of Tetris as a Post-Trauma ‘Cogntive Vaccine’. (Doctoral thesis). Oxford: Oxford University.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, E., Vermass, R., McCartney, H., Beech, C., Palmer, I., Hyams, K., & Wessely, S. (2003). Flashbacks and post-traumatic stress disorder: The genesis of a 20th-century diagnosis. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 158–163. doi:10.1192/bjp.02.231
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krans, J., Näring, G., Becker, E. S., & Holmes, E. A. (2009). Intrusive trauma memory: A review and functional analysis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 1076–1088. doi:10.1002/acp.1611
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krans, J., Näring, G., Holmes, E. A., & Becker, E. S. (2010). Motion effects on intrusion development. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 11(1), 73–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krans, J., Näring, G., Speckens, A., & Becker, E. S. (2011). Eyewitness or earwitness: The role of mental imagery in intrusion development. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 4(2), 154–164. doi:10.1521/ijct.2011.4.2.154
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvavilashvili, L. (2014). Solving the mystery of intrusive flashbacks in posttraumatic stress disorder: Comment on Brewin (2014). Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 98–104. doi:10.1037/a0034677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laposa, J. M., & Alden, L. E. (2008). The effects of pre-existing vulnerability factors on laboratory analogue trauma experience. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 39, 424–435. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.11.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malik, A., Goodwin, G., Hoppitt, L., & Holmes, E. ( in press). Hypomanic experience in young adults confers vulnerability to intrusive imagery after experimental trauma: Relevance for bipolar disorder. Clinical Psychological Science. doi:10.1177/2167702614527433
   Google Scholar
• O'Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., McFarlane, A. C., Silove, D., & Bryant, R. A. (2010). Should A2 be a diagnostic requirement for posttraumatic stress disorder in DSM-V? Psychiatry Research, 176, 257–260. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.05.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Donnell, M. L., Elltiot, P., Lau, W., & Creamer, M. (2007). PTSD symptom trajectories: From early to chronic response. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 601–606. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.03.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52–73. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.52
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riley, R. D., Lambert, P. C., & Abo-Zaid, G. (2010). Meta-analysis of individual participant data: Rationale, conduct, and reporting. BMJ, 340, 521–525. doi:10.1136/bmj.c221
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver, R. C., Holman, E. A., Andersen, J. P., Poulin, M., McIntosh, D. N., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2013). Mental- and physical-health effects of acute exposure to media images of the September 11, 2001, attacks and the Iraq war. Psychological Science, 24, 1623–1634. doi:10.1177/0956797612460406
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for state-trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Streb, M., Häller, P., & Michael, T. (2014). PTSD in paramedics: Resilience and sense of coherence. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 42(4), 452–463. doi:10.1017/S1352465813000337
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wessel, I., Huntjens, R. J. C., & Verwoerd, J. (2010). Cognitive control and suppression of memories of an emotional film. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 83–89. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2009.10.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar