Hopelessly mortal: The role of mortality salience, immortality and trait self-esteem in personal hope

REFERENCES

• Abeyta, A. A., Juhl, J., & Routledge, C. (2014). Exploring the effects of self-esteem and mortality salience on proximal and distally measured death anxiety: A further test of the dual process model of terror management. Motivation and Emotion, 38, 523–528.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Arndt, J., & Greenberg, J. (1999). The effects of a self-esteem boost and mortality salience on responses to boost relevant and irrelevant worldview threats. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 25, 1331–1341.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1997). Subliminal exposure to death-related stimuli increases defense of the cultural worldview. Psychological Science, 8, 379–385.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Simon, L. (1997). Suppression, accessibility of death-related thoughts, and cultural worldview defense: Exploring the psychodynamics of terror management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 5–18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aspinwall, L. G., & Leaf, S. L. (2002). In search of the unique aspects of hope: Pinning our hopes on positive emotions, future-oriented thinking, hard times, and other people. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 276–288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review, 97(1), 90–113. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.90
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes, 1, 115–160.
   Google Scholar
• Bruininks, P., & Malle, B. F. (2005). Distinguishing hope from optimism and related affective states. Motivation and Emotion, 29, 324–352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borneman, T., Irish, T., Sidhu, R., Koczywas, M., & Cristea, M. (2014). Death awareness, feelings of uncertainty, and hope in advanced lung cancer patients: Can they coexist? International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 20, 271–277.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H. (2010). Two decades of terror management theory: A meta-analysis of mortality salience research. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14, 155–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C., & Davies, F. (2007). The impact of hope, self-esteem, and attributional style on adolescents’ school grades and emotional well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 1161–1178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chochinov, H. M., Wilson, K. G., Enns, M., & Lander, S. (1998). Depression, hopelessness and suicidal ideation in the terminally ill. Psychosomatics, 39, 366–370. doi:10.1016/S0033-3182(98)71325-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, G. L., & Sherman, D. K. (2014). The psychology of change: Self-affirmation and social psychological intervention. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 333–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooney, M., & Phillips, S. (2013, March). With god on one's side: The social geometry of death row apologies. Sociological Forum, 28(1), 159–178.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dechesne, M., Pyszczynski, T., Arndt, J., Ransom, S., Sheldon, K. M, van Knippenberg, A., & Janssen, J. (2003). Literal and symbolic immortality: The effect of evidence of literal immortality on self-esteem striving in response to mortality salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 722–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert, D. T., Pinel, E. C., Wilson, T. D., Blumberg, S. J., & Wheatley, T. P. (1998). Immune neglect: A source of durability bias in affective forecasting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986). The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: A terror management theory. In R. F. Baumeister (Ed.), Public self and private self (pp. 189–212). New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Simon, L., & Breus, M. (1994). Role of consciousness and accessibility of death-related thoughts in mortality salience effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 627.
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Rosenblatt, A., Veeder, M., Kirkland, S., & Lyon, D. (1990). Evidence for terror management II: The effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who threaten or bolster the cultural worldview. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 308–318.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gurari, I., Strube, M. J., & Hetts, J. J. (2009). Death? Be proud! The ironic effects of terror salience on implicit self‐esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39, 494–507.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harding, S. R., Flannelly, K. J., Weaver, A. J., & Costa, K. G. (2005). The influence of religion on death anxiety and death acceptance. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 8, 253–261.
   Google Scholar
• Harmon-Jones, E., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & McGregor, H. (1997). Terror management theory and self-esteem: Evidence that increased self-esteem reduces mortality salience effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 24–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasson-Ohayon, I., Braun, M., Galinsky, D., & Baider, L. (2009). Religiosity and hope: A path for women coping with a diagnosis of breast cancer. Psychosomatics, 50, 525–533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, J., Schimel, J., & Williams, T. J. (2008). Evidence for the death thought accessibility hypothesis II: Threatening self-esteem increases the accessibility of death thoughts. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 600–613.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heflick, N. A. (2005). Sentenced to die: Last statements and dying on death row. OMEGA–Journal of Death and Dying, 51, 323–336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2009). Suffering or death? Evidence that hellish afterlives do not buffer mortality salience effects. Poster presented at the annual meeting for the Society of Personality and Social Psychology, Tampa, FL.
   Google Scholar
• Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2012). No atheists in foxholes: Arguments for (but not against) afterlife belief buffer mortality salience effects for atheists. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51(2), 385–392. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02058.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heine, S. J., Harihara, M., & Niiya, Y. (2002). Terror management in Japan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 5, 187–196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herth, K. (1990). Fostering hope in terminally‐ill people. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 15, 1250–1259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hohman, Z. P., & Hogg, M. A. (2011). Fear and uncertainty in the face of death: The role of life after death in group identification. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 751–760. doi:10.1002/ejsp.818
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holbrook, C., Sousa, P., & Hahn-Holbrook, J. (2011). Unconscious vigilance: Worldview defense without adaptations for terror, coalition, or uncertainty management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 451–466. doi:10.1037/a0024033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jetten, J., Haslam, C., Haslam, A. S., & Alexander, S. H. (Eds.). (2012). The social cure: Identity, health and well-being. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jonas, E., & Fischer, P. (2006). Terror management and religion: Evidence that intrinsic religiousness mitigates worldview defense following mortality salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 553–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koole, S. L., McCullough, M. E., Kuhl, J., & Roelofsma, P. H. (2010). Why religion's burdens are light: From religiosity to implicit self-regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 95–107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., Peak, S. A., Scherer, L. D., Schott, J. P., & Slochower, J. M. (2014). Toward a greater understanding of the emotional dynamics of the mortality salience manipulation: Revisiting the “affect-free” claim of terror management research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 655.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leary, M. R., & Buttermore, N. R. (2003). The evolution of the human self: Tracing the natural history of self‐awareness. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 33, 365–404.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R., & Pedrotti, J. T. (2003). Hope: Many definitions, many measures. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp. 91–106). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• McClain-Jacobson, C., Rosenfeld, B., Kosinski, A., Pessin, H., Cimino, J. E., & Breitbart, W. (2004). Belief in an afterlife, spiritual well-being and end-of-life despair in patients with advanced cancer. General Hospital Psychiatry, 26, 484–486.
   Google Scholar
• McGregor, H., Lieberman, J. D, Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., Arndt, J., Simon, L, & Pyszczynski, T. (1998). Terror management and aggression: Evidence that mortality salience motivates aggression against worldview threatening others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 590–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michael, S. T., & Snyder, C. R. (2005). Getting unstuck: The roles of hope, finding meaning, and rumination in the adjustment to bereavement among college students. Death Studies, 29, 435–458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikulincer, M., & Florian, V. (2002). The effect of mortality salience on self-serving attributions—evidence for the function of self-esteem as a terror management mechanism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 24, 261–271.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neel, C., Lo, C., Rydall, A., Hales, S., & Rodin, G. (2013). Determinants of death anxiety in patients with advanced cancer. BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care. doi:10.1136/bmjspcare-2012-000420
   Google Scholar
• Proulx, T., Inzlicht, M., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2012). Understanding all inconsistency compensation as a palliative response to violated expectations. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 285–291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (2000). Proximal and distal defense: A new perspective on unconscious motivation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 156–159.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyszczynski, T., Wicklund, R. A., Floresku, S., Koch, H., Gauch, G., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (1996). Whistling in the dark: Exaggerated consensus estimates in response to incidental reminders of mortality. Psychological Science, 7, 332–336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pevey, C. F., Jones, T. J., & Yarber, A. (2008). How religion comforts the dying: A qualitative inquiry. OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying, 58, 41–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Routledge, C., Ostafin, B., Juhl, J., Sedikides, C., Cathey, C., & Liao, J. (2010). Adjusting to death: The effects of mortality salience and self-esteem on psychological well-being, growth motivation, and maladaptive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 897–916.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutjens, B. T., van der Pligt, J., & van Harreveld, F. (2009). Things will get better: The anxiety-buffering qualities of progressive hope. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(5), 535–543. doi:10.1177/0146167208331252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutjens, B. T., van Harreveld, F., & van der Pligt, J. (2013). Step by step: Finding compensatory order in science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 250–255.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salander, P., Bergknut, M., & Henriksson, R. (2014). The creation of hope in patients with lung cancer. Acta Oncologica, 53, 1205–1211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmeichel, B. J., & Martens, A. (2005). Self-affirmation and mortality salience: Affirming values reduces worldview defense and death-thought accessibility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 658–667.
   Google Scholar
• Sedikides, C., Skowronski, J. J., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (2006). When and why did the human self evolve? In M. Schaller, J. A. Simpson, & D. T. Kenrick (Eds.), Evolution and Social Psychology: Frontiers in social psychology (pp. 55–80). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, C. A., & Ellsworth, P. C. (1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(4), 813–838.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 249–275. doi:10.1207/S15327965PLI1304_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., & Higgins, R. L. (1996). Development and validation of the State Hope Scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 321–335. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.321
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2004). The cultural animal: Twenty years of terror management theory and research. In J. Greenberg, S. L., Koole, & T. Pyszczynski (Eds.), Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp. 13–34). New York, NY: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Staats, S. (1989). Hope: A comparison of two self-report measures for adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 53, 366–375. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5302_13
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staats, A. R., & Stassen, M. A. (1985). Hope: An affective cognition. Social Indicators Research, 17, 235–242. doi:10.1007/BF00319312
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanton, A. L., Danoff-Burg, S., & Huggins, M. E. (2002). The first year after breast cancer diagnosis: Hope and coping strategies as predictors of adjustment. Psycho-Oncology, 11, 93–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thimm, J. C., Holte, A., Brennen, T., & Wang, C. E. (2013). Hope and expectancies for future events in depression. Frontiers in psychology, 4, 470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, E. M. (2014). Differentiation of 13 positive emotions by appraisals. Cognition and Emotion. doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.922056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, E. M. W., Fredrickson, B. L., Chang, W. C., & Lim, Z. X. (2010). Re-examining hope: The roles of agency thinking and pathways thinking. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 1207–1215. doi:10.1080/02699930903138865
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker, R. P., Wingate, L. R., O'Keefe, V. M., Mills, A. C., Rasmussen, K., Davidson, C. L., & Grant D. M. (2013). Rumination and suicidal ideation: The moderating roles of hope and optimism. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 606–611. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.05.013
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaes, J., Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2010). “We are people:” In-group humanization as an existential defense. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 750–760. doi:10.1037/a0017658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vail, K. E., Rothschild, Z. K., Weise, D., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (2010). A terror management analysis of the psychological functions of religion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 84–94. doi:10.1177/1088868309351165
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winzeler, R. L. (2008). Anthropology and religion: What we know, think and question. Langham, MD: Altamira Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wisman, A. (2006). Digging in terror management theory: To use or lose the symbolic self? Psychological Inquiry, 17, 319–327.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisman, A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2005). From the grave to the cradle: Evidence that mortality salience engenders a desire for offspring. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 46–61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wisman, A., & Heflick, N. A. (2015). Hope as a function of self-esteem boosts and mortality salience. Manuscript in preparation.
   Google Scholar
• Wisman, A., Heflick, N. A., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2014). The great escape: The role of mortality salience and self-esteem in self-related cognition. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar