Face perception across the adult lifespan: evidence for age-related changes independent of general intelligence

References

• Baksh, R. A., Abrahams, S., Auyeung, B., MacPherson, S. E., & van den Bos, R. (2018). The Edinburgh social cognition test (ESCoT): Examining the effects of age on a new measure of theory of mind and social norm understanding. PloS One, 13(4), e0195818. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195818
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benton, A. L., Eslinger, P. J., & Damasio, A. R. (1981). Normative observations on neuropsychological test performances in old age. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 3(1), 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688638108403111
   Google Scholar
• Boutet, I., & Faubert, J. (2006). Recognition of faces and complex objects in younger and older adults. Memory & Cognition, 34(4), 854–864. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bruce, V., & Young, A. W. (2012). Face perception. Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Calder, A. J., Keane, J., Manly, T., Sprengelmeyer, R., Scott, S., Nimmo-Smith, I., & Young, A. W. (2003). Facial expression recognition across the adult life span. Neuropsychologia, 41(2), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00149-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cattell, R. B. (1973). Culture-fair intelligence test. Institute for personality and ability testing.
   Google Scholar
• Connolly, H. L., Lefevre, C. E., Young, A. W., & Lewis, G. J. (2020). Emotion recognition ability: Evidence for a supramodal factor and its links to social cognition. Cognition, 197, 104166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connolly, H. L., Young, A. W., & Lewis, G. J. (2019). Recognition of facial expression and identity in part reflects a common ability, independent of general intelligence and visual short-term memory. Cognition and Emotion, 33(6), 1119–1128. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1535425
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary, I. J. (2001). Intelligence: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Deary, I. J., Der, G., & Ford, G. (2001). Reaction times and intelligence differences: A population-based cohort study. Intelligence, 29(5), 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(01)00062-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duchaine, B. C., & Weidenfeld, A. (2003). An evaluation of two commonly used tests of unfamiliar face recognition. Neuropsychologia, 41(6), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00222-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1976). Pictures of facial affect. Consulting Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. (1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(3), 309–331. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 171–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.171
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildebrandt, A., Sommer, W., Herzmann, G., & Wilhelm, O. (2010). Structural invariance and age-related performance differences in face cognition. Psychology and Aging, 25(4), 794–810. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildebrandt, A., Sommer, W., Schacht, A., & Wilhelm, O. (2015). Perceiving and remembering emotional facial expressions—A basic facet of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 50, 52–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildebrandt, A., Wilhelm, O., Schmiedek, F., Herzmann, G., & Sommer, W. (2011). On the specificity of face cognition compared with general cognitive functioning across adult age. Psychology and Aging, 26(3), 701–715. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023056
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horning, S. M., Cornwell, R. E., & Davis, H. P. (2012). The recognition of facial expressions: An investigation of the influence of age and cognition. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 19(6), 657–676. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2011.645011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, W., te Nijenhuis, J., & Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (2008). Still just 1g: Consistent results from five test batteries. Intelligence, 36(1), 81–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2007.06.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessels, R. P., Montagne, B., Hendriks, A. W., Perrett, D. I., & de Haan, E. H. (2014). Assessment of perception of morphed facial expressions using the emotion recognition task: Normative data from healthy participants aged 8–75. Journal of Neuropsychology, 8(1), 75–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, H. S., Hamsher, K. D. S., & Benton, A. L. (1975). A short form of the test of facial recognition for clinical use. The Journal of Psychology, 91(2), 223–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9923946
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, G. J., Lefevre, C. E., & Young, A. W. (2016). Functional architecture of visual emotion recognition ability: A latent variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(5), 589–602. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maylor, E. A., Moulson, J. M., Muncer, A. M., & Taylor, L. A. (2002). Does performance on theory of mind tasks decline in old age? British Journal of Psychology, 93(4), 465–485. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712602761381358
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCaffery, J., Robertson, D. I., Young, A. W., & Burton, A. M. (2018). Individual differences in face identity processing. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3(21), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-018-0112-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mill, A., Allik, J., Realo, A., & Valk, R. (2009). Age-related differences in emotion recognition ability: A cross-sectional study. Emotion, 9(5), 619–630. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016562
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J. Jr, Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olderbak, S., Wilhelm, O., Hildebrandt, A., & Quoidbach, J. (2019). Sex differences in facial emotion perception ability across the lifespan. Cognition and Emotion, 33(3), 579–588. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1454403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling and more. Version 0.5–12 (BETA). Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossion, B. (2018). Normative accuracy and response time data for the computerized Benton facial Recognition Test (BFRT-c). Behavior Research Methods, 50(6), 2442–2460. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1023-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruffman, T., Henry, J. D., Livingstone, V., & Phillips, L. H. (2008). A meta-analytic review of emotion recognition and aging: Implications for neuropsychological models of aging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(4), 863–881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.01.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutter, L. A., Dodell-Feder, D., Vahia, I. V., Forester, B. P., Ressler, K. J., Wilmer, J. B., & Germine, L. (2019). Emotion sensitivity across the lifespan: Mapping clinical risk periods to sensitivity to facial emotion intensity. Journal of Experimental Psychology. General, 148(11), 1993–2005. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (2010). Selective review of cognitive aging. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(5), 754–760. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710000706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (2013). Within-cohort age-related differences in cognitive functioning. Psychological Science, 24(2), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612450893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (2014a). Why are there different age relations in cross-sectional and longitudinal comparisons of cognitive functioning? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(4), 252–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414535212
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (2014b). Aging cognition unconfounded by prior test experience. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 71(1), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbu063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sasson, N. J., Pinkham, A. E., Richard, J., Hughett, P., Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (2010). Controlling for response biases clarifies sex and age differences in facial affect recognition. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 34(4), 207–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-010-0092-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlegel, K., & Scherer, K. R. (2016). Introducing a short version of the geneva emotion Recognition Test (GERT-S): psychometric properties and construct validation. Behavior Research Methods, 48(4), 1383–1392. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0646-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Searcy, J. H., Bartlett, J. C., & Memon, A. (1999). Age differences in accuracy and choosing in eyewitness identification and face recognition. Memory & Cognition, 27(3), 538–552. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211547
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shafto, M. A., Tyler, L. K., Dixon, M., Taylor, J. R., Rowe, J. B., Cusack, R., Calder, A. J., Marslen-Wilson, W. D., Duncan, J., Dalgleish, T., Henson, R. N., Brayne, C., & Matthews, F. E. (2014). The Cambridge Centre for Ageing and Neuroscience (Cam-CAN) study protocol: A cross-sectional, lifespan, multidisciplinary examination of healthy cognitive ageing. BMC Neurology, 14(1), 204. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-014-0204-1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shakeshaft, N. G., & Plomin, R. (2015). Genetic specificity of face recognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(41), 12887–12892. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1421881112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheppard, L. D., & Vernon, P. A. (2008). Intelligence and speed of information-processing: A review of 50 years of research. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(3), 535–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.09.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhallen, R. J., Bosten, J. M., Goodbourn, P. T., Lawrance-Owen, A. J., Bargary, G., & Mollon, J. D. (2017). General and specific factors in the processing of faces. Vision Research, 141, 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2016.12.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, J. T., Horning, S. M., Klebe, K. J., Foster, S. M., Cornwell, R. E., Perrett, D., Burt, D. M., & Davis, H. P. (2012). Age effects on emotion recognition in facial displays: From 20 to 89 years of age. Experimental Aging Research, 38(2), 146–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/0361073X.2012.659997
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilhelm, O., Herzmann, G., Kunina, O., Danthiir, V., Schacht, A., & Sommer, W. (2010). Individual differences in perceiving and recognizing faces – One element of social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(3), 530–548. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, A. W. (2018). Faces, people and the brain: The 45th Sir frederic Bartlett lecture. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(3), 569–594. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021817740275
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, A. W., & Burton, A. M. (2018). Are we face experts? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(2), 100–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2017.11.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, A. W., Perrett, D., Calder, A., Sprengelmeyer, R., & Ekman, P. (2002). Facial expressions of emotion: Stimuli and tests (FEEST). Thames Valley Test Company.
   Google Scholar
• Young, A. W., Rowland, D., Calder, A. J., Etcoff, N. L., Seth, A., & Perrett, D. I. (1997). Facial expression megamix: Tests of dimensional and category accounts of emotion recognition. Cognition, 63(3), 271–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(97)00003-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar