Presence of metals in drinking water distribution networks due to pipe material leaching: a review

References

• Alam, I.A., and M. Sadiq. 1989. “Metal Contamination of Drinking Water From Corrosion of Distribution Pipes.” Environmental Pollution 57: 167–178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AWWA. 1999. Water Quality & Treatment Handbook. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
   Google Scholar
• AWWA, 2004. Water://Stats 2002 Distribution Survey. Denver, CO: AWWA.
   Google Scholar
• Barton, H. 2008. “Predicted Intake of Trace Elements and Minerals via Household Drinking Water by 6-year-old Children From KRAKÓW, Poland. Part 3: Aluminium, 1997–2001.” Food Additives and Contaminants 25: 588–603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton, H. 2005. “Predicted Intake of Trace Elements and Minerals Via Household Drinking Water by 6-year-old Children From Kraków, Poland. Part 2: Cadmium, 1997–2001.” Food Additives and Contaminants 22: 816–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastidas, D.M., M. Criado, S. Fajardo, V.M. La Iglesia, E. Cano, and J.M. Bastidas. 2010. “Copper Deterioration: Causes, Diagnosis and Risk Minimisation.” International Materials Reviews 55: 99–127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benson, A.S., A.M. Dietrich, and D.L. Gallagher. 2012. “Evaluation of Iron Release Models for Water Distribution Systems.” Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 42: 44–97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berend, K., and T. Trouwborst. 1999. “Cement-mortar Pipes as a Source of Aluminum.” Journal American Water Works Association 91: 91–100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berend, K., G. Van Der Voet, and W.H. Boer. 2001. “Acute Aluminum Encephalopathy in a Dialysis Center Caused by a Cement Mortar Water Distribution Pipe.” Kidney International 59: 746–753.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blute, N.K., M.J. McGuire, N. West, N. Voutchkov, P. MacLaggan, and A. Reich. 2008. “Integration of Desalinated Seawater into a Distribution System: A Corrosion Pilot Study.” Journal American Water Works Association 100: 117–131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulay, N., and M. Edwards. 2001. “Role of Temperature, Chlorine, and Organic Matter in Copper Corrosion By-Product Release in Soft Water.” Water Research 35: 683–690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, G.R., K.M. Dewis, G.V. Korshin, S.H. Reiber, M.R. Schock, A.M. Sandvig, and R. Giani. 2008. “Effects of Changing Disinfectants on Lead and Copper Release.” Journal American Water Works Association 100: 75–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, G.R., P. Shetty, A.M. Sandvig, and G.L. Pierson. 2004. “Pb in Tap Water Following Simulated Partial Lead Pipe Replacements.” Journal of Environmental Engineering 130: 1188–1197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, S.D. 2004. “Lead-Contaminated Drinking Waters in the Public Schools of Philadelphia.” Journal of Toxicology - Clinical Toxicology 42: 287–294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calle, G.R., I.T. Vargas, M.A. Alsina, P.A. Pasten, and G.E. Pizarro. 2007. “Enhanced Copper Release From Pipes by Alternating Stagnation and Flow Events.” Environmental Science and Technology 41: 7430–7436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cartier, C., S. Nour, B. Richer, E. Deshommes, and M. Prévost. 2012. “Impact of Water Treatment on the Contribution of Faucets to Dissolved and Particulate Lead Release at the tap.” Water Research 46: 5205–5216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chien, C.C., C.M. Kao, C.W. Chen, C.D. Dong, and H.Y. Chien. 2009. “Evaluation of Biological Stability and Corrosion Potential in Drinking Water Distribution Systems: A Case Study.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 153: 127–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clement, J.A., M.E. Hayes, W.M. Kriven, P. Sarin, J. Bebee, K. Jim, M. Beckett, V.L. Snoeyink, G.J. Kirmeyer, and G. Pierson. 2002. Development of Red Water Control Strategies. Denver: American Water Works Association.
   Google Scholar
• Critchley, M.M., R. Pasetto, and R.J. O’Halloran. 2004. “Microbiological Influences in “Blue Water” Copper Corrosion.” Journal of Applied Microbiology 97: 590–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dartmann, J., B. Sadlowsky, T. Dorsch, and K. Johannsen. 2010. “Copper Corrosion In Drinking Water Systems – Effect of pH and Phosphate-Dosage.” Materials and Corrosion 61: 189–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deshommes, E., L. Laroche, S. Nour, C. Cartier, and M. Prévost. 2010. “Source and Occurrence of Particulate Lead in Tap Water.” Water Research 44: 3734–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Domingo, J.L. 1994. “Metal-Induced Developmental Toxicity in Mammals: A Review.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 42: 123–41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas, B.D., D.T. Merrill, and J.O. Catlin. 1996. “Water Quality Deterioration From Corrosion of Cement-Mortar Linings.” Journal American Water Works Association 88: 99–107.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DWD (Drinking Water Directive). 1998. Council Directive 98/83/EC on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption. Luxembourg: Official Journal of the European Communities.
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, M., and A. Dudi. 2004. “Role of Chlorine and Chloramine in Corrosion of Lead-Bearing Plumbing Materials.” Journal American Water Works Association 96: 69–81.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, M., J.F. Ferguson, and S.H. Reiber. 1994. “Pitting Corrosion of Copper.” Journal American Water Works Association 86: 74–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, M., and L.S. McNeill. 2002. “Effect of Phosphate Inhibitors on Lead Release from Pipes.” Journal American Water Works Association 94: 79–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, M., and N. Sprague. 2001. “Organic Matter and Copper Corrosion By-Product Release: A Mechanistic Study.” Corrosion Science 43: 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisnor, J.D., and G.A. Gagnon. 2004. “Impact of Secondary Disinfection on Corrosion in a Model Water Distribution System.” Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - AQUA 53: 441–452.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elfland, C., S. Paolo, and E. Marc. 2010. “Lead-Contaminated Water From Brass Plumbing Devices in New Buildings.” Journal American Water Works Association 102: 66–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gouider, M., J. Bouzid, S. Sayadi, and A. Montiel. 2009. “Impact of Orthophosphate Addition on Biofilm Development in Drinking Water Distribution Systems.” Journal of Hazardous Materials 167: 1198–202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, Q. 1997. “Increases of Lead and Chromium in Drinking Water from Using Cement-Mortar-Lined Pipes: Initial Modeling and Assessment.” Journal of Hazardous Materials 56: 181–213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo, Q., P.J. Toomuluri, and J.O. Eckert Jr. 1998. “Leachability of Regulated Metals From Cement-Mortar Linings: In a Laboratory Study, Metals Leached from Cement-Mortar Linings at Levels that Suggest Water Suppliers Should be Selective When Choosing Cement for Lining Pipes.” Journal American Water Works Association 90: 62–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta, U.C., and S.C. Gupta. 2011. “Heavy Metal Toxicity in Humans and its Preventive and Control Measures.” Current Nutrition and Food Science 7: 221–231.
   Google Scholar
• Hyun-Jung, J., Y.-J. Choi, and J.-O. Ka. 2011. “Effects of Diverse Water Pipe Materials on Bacterial Communities and Water Quality in the Annular Reactor.” Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 21: 115–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karavoltsos, S., A. Sakellari, N. Mihopoulos, M. Dassenakis, and M.J Scoullos. 2008. “Evaluation of the Quality of Drinking Water in Regions of Greece.” Desalination 224: 317–329.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, E.J., and J.E. Herrera. 2010. “Characteristics of Lead Corrosion Scales Formed During Drinking Water Distribution and Their Potential Influence on the Release of Lead and Other Contaminants.” Environmental Science and Technology 44: 6054–6061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, E.J., J.E. Herrera, D. Huggins, J. Braam, and S. Koshowski. 2011. “Effect of pH on the Concentrations of Lead and Trace Contaminants in Drinking Water: A Combined Batch, Pipe Loop and Sentinel Home Study.” Water Research 45: 2763–2774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korfali, S.I., and M. Jurdi. 2007. “Assessment of Domestic Water Quality: Case Study, Beirut, Lebanon.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 135: 241–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvech, S., and M. Edwards. 2001. “Role of Aluminosilicate Deposits in Lead and Copper Corrosion.” Journal American Water Works Association 93: 104–112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, R.G., W.C. Becker, and D.W. Collins. 1989. “Lead at the Tap: Sources and Control.” Journal American Water Works Association 81: 52–62.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehtola, M.J., I.T. Miettinen, M.M. Keinänen, T.K. Kekki, O. Laine, A. Hirvonen, T. Vartiainen, and P.J. Martikainen. 2004. “Microbiology, Chemistry and Biofilm Development in a Pilot Drinking Water Distribution System with Copper and Plastic Pipes.” Water Research 38: 3769–3779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, H., K.D. Schonberger, G.V. Korshin, J.F. Ferguson, P. Meyerhofer, E. Desormeaux, and H. Luckenbach. 2010. “Effects of Blending of Desalinated Water with Treated Surface Drinking Water on Copper and Lead Release.” Water Research 44: 4057–4066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lytle, D.A., P. Sarin, and V.L. Snoeyink. 2005. “The Effect of Chloride and Orthophosphate on the Release of Iron From a Cast Iron Pipe Section.” Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - AQUA 54: 267–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lytle, D.A., and M.R. Schock. 2000. “Impact of Stagnation Time on Metal Dissolution From Plumbing Materials in Drinking Water.” Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - AQUA 49: 243–257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mays, L. ed. 1999. Water Distribution System Handbook. 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.
   Google Scholar
• Mcneill, L.S., and M. Edwards. 2001. “Iron Pipe Corrosion in Distribution Systems.” Journal American Water Works Association 93: 88–100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNeill, L.S., and M. Edwards. 2004. “Importance of Pb and Cu Particulate Species for Corrosion Control.” Journal of Environmental Engineering 130: 136–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merkel, T.H., H.-J. Gross, W. Werner, T. Dahlke, S. Reicherter, G. Beuchle, and S.H. Eberle. 2002. “Copper Corrosion By-Product Release in Long-Term Stagnation Experiments.” Water Research 36: 1547–1555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merkel, T.H., and S.O. Pehkonen. 2006. “General Corrosion of Copper in Domestic Drinking Water Installations: Scientific Background and Mechanistic Understanding.” Corrosion Engineering Science and Technology 41: 21–27.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nawrocki, J., U. Raczyk-Stanisławiak, J. Świetlik, A. Olejnik, and M.J. Sroka. 2010. “Corrosion in a Distribution System: Steady Water and Its Composition.” Water Research 44: 1863–1872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen, C.K., B.N. Clark, K.R. Stone, and M.A. Edwards, 2011. “Acceleration of Galvanic Lead Solder Corrosion Due to Phosphate.” Corrosion Science 53: 1515–1521.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nkono, N.A., and O.I. Asubiojo. 1998. “Elemental Composition of Drinking Water Supplies in Three States in Southeastern Nigeria.” Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry 227: 117–119.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papanikolaou, N.C., E.G. Hatzidaki, S. Belivanis, G.N. Tzanakakis, and A.M. Tsatsakis. 2005. “Lead Toxicity Update. A Brief Review.” Medical Science Monitor 11: RA329–RA336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peng, C.-Y., G.V. Korshin, R.L. Valentine, A.S. Hill, M.J. Friedman, and S.H. Reiber. 2010. “Characterization of Elemental and Structural Composition of Corrosion Scales and Deposits Formed in Drinking Water Distribution Systems.” Water Research 44: 4570–4580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajani, B.B., and Y. Kleiner. 2004. “Non-Destructive Inspection Techniques to Determine Structural Distress Indicators in Water Mains.” National Research Council Canada NRCC-47068, 1–20.
   Google Scholar
• Renner, R. 2008. “Pipe Scales Release Hazardous Metals into Drinking Water.” Environmental Science & Technology 42: 4241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reyes, A., M.V. Letelier, R. De la Iglesia, B. González, and G. Lagos. 2008. “Microbiologically Induced Corrosion of Copper Pipes in Low-pH Water.” International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 61: 135–141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadiq, M., T.H. Zaidi, H. Al Muhanna, and A.A. Mian. 1997. “Effect of Distribution Network Pipe Material on Drinking Water Quality.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part A Toxic /Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering 32: 445–454.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarin, P., J. Bebee, M.A. Beckett, K.K. Jim, D.A. Lytle, J.A. Clement, W.M. Kriven, and V.L. Snoeyink. 2001. “Mechanism of Release of Iron from Corroded Iron/Steel Pipes in Water Distribution Systems.” Corrosion & Materials 26: 3.
   Google Scholar
• Sarin, P., J.A. Clement, V.L. Snoeyink, and W.M. Kriven. 2003. “Iron Release from Corroded, Unlined Cast-Iron Pipe.” Journal American Water Works Association 95: 85–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarin, P., V.L. Snoeyink, D.A. Lytle, and W.M. Kriven. 2004. “Iron Corrosion Scales: Model for Scale Growth, Iron Release, and Colored Water Formation.” Journal of Environmental Engineering 130: 364–373.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarver, E., Y. Zhang, and M. Edwards. 2010. “Review of Brass Dezincification Corrosion in Potable Water Systems.” Corrosion Reviews 28: 155–196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schock, M. 2005. “Distribution Systems as Reservoirs and Reactors for Inorganic Contaminants.” In Distribution System Water Quality Challenges in the 21st Century: A Strategic Guide, edited by M.J. MacPhee, 105–140. Denver: American Water Works Association.
   Google Scholar
• Schock, M.R., R.N. Hyland, and M.M. Welch. 2008. “Occurrence of Contaminant Accumulation in Lead Pipe Scales From Domestic Drinking-Water Distribution Systems.” Environmental Science and Technology 42: 4285–4291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schock, M.R., and F.G. Lemieux. 2010. “Challenges in Addressing Variability of Lead in Domestic Plumbing.” Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 10:793–799.
   Google Scholar
• Schwenk, W. 1992. “Investigation on Nickel Dissolution in Drinking Water from Cr-Ni Stainless Steel.” [ In German] GWF Wasser Abwasser 133: 281–286.
   Google Scholar
• Sedman, R.M., J. Beaumont, T.A. McDonald, S. Reynolds, G. Krowech, and R. Howd. 2006. “Review of the Evidence Regarding the Carcinogenicity of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part C Environmental Carcinogenesis and Ecotoxicology Reviews 24: 155–182.
   Google Scholar
• Shi, B., and J.S. Taylor. 2007. “Iron and Copper Release in Drinking-Water Distribution Systems.” Journal of Environmental Health 70: 29–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snoeyink, V.L., M.R. Schock, P. Sarin, L. Wang, A.S.-C. Chen, and S.M. Harmon. 2003. “Aluminium-Containing Scales in Water Distribution Systems: Prevalence and Composition.” Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - AQUA 52: 455–574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Switzer, J.A., V.V. Rajasekharan, S. Boonsalee, E.A. Kulp, and E.W. Bohannan. 2006. “Evidence that Monochloramine Disinfectant Could Lead to Elevated Pb Levels in Drinking Water.” Environmental Science and Technology 40: 3384–3387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Symons, J.M., L.C. Bradley, and T.C. Cleveland. eds. 2001. The Drinking Water Dictionary. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Tam, Y.S., and P. Elefsiniotis. 2009. “Corrosion Control in Water Supply Systems: Effect of pH, Alkalinity, and Orthophosphate on Lead and Copper Leaching from Brass Plumbing.” Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part A Toxic /Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering 44: 1251–1260.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tamasi, G., and R. Cini. 2004. “Heavy Metals in Drinking Waters from Mount Amiata (Tuscany, Italy). Possible Risks from Arsenic for Public Health in the Province of Siena.” Science of the Total Environment 327: 41–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, Z., S. Hong, W. Xiao, and J. Taylor. 2006. “Characteristics of Iron Corrosion Scales Established under Blending of Ground, Surface, and Saline Waters and Their Impacts on Iron Release in the Pipe Distribution System.” Corrosion Science 48: 322–342.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, J., J. Dietz, A. Randall, and S. Hong. 2005. “Impact of RO-Desalted Water on Distribution Water Qualities.” Water Science and Technology 51: 285–291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, J., Z. Tang, W. Xiao, and S. Hong. 2006. “Monitoring of Distribution Water Qualities Under Various Source Water Blending.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 117: 59–71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valko, M., H. Morris, and M.T.D. Cronin. 2005. “Metals, Toxicity and Oxidative Stress.” Current Medicinal Chemistry 12: 1161–1208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veschetti, E., L. Achene, E. Ferretti, L. Lucentini, G. Citti, and M. Ottaviani. 2010. “Migration of Trace Metals in Italian Drinking Waters from Distribution Networks.” Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry 92: 521–535.
   Google Scholar
• Vreeburg, J.H.G., and D.J.B. Boxall. 2007. “Discolouration in Potable Water Distribution Systems: A Review.” Water Research 41: 519–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., H. Jing, V. Mehta, G.J. Welter, and D.E. Giammar. 2012. “Impact of Galvanic Corrosion on Lead Release from Aged Lead Service Lines.” Water Research 46: 5049–5060.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, Y., X.J. Zhang, Z.B. Niu, C. Chen, P.P. Lu, and F. Tang. 2009. “Effect of Chloramine Residual on Iron Release in Drinking Water Distribution Systems.” Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 9: 349–355.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. 2011. WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. 4th ed. Geneva: World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• Willhite, C.C., G.L. Ball, and C.J. McLellan. 2012. “Total Allowable Concentrations of Monomeric Inorganic Aluminum and Hydrated Aluminum Silicates in Drinking Water.” Critical Reviews in Toxicology 42: 358–442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao, W., S. Hong, Z. Tang, and J.S. Taylor. 2007. “Effects of Blending on Total Copper Release in Distribution Systems.” Journal American Water Works Association 99: 78–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie, Y., and D.E. Giammar. 2011. “Effects of Flow and Water Chemistry on Lead Release Rates from Pipe Scales.” Water Research 45: 6525–6534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., and M. Edwards. 2011. “Effects of pH, Chloride, Bicarbonate, and Phosphate On Brass Dezincification.” Journal American Water Works Association 103: 90–102.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., A. Griffin, and M. Edwards. 2010. “Effect of Nitrification on Corrosion of Galvanized Iron, Copper, and Concrete.” Journal American Water Works Association 102: 83–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., A. Griffin, M. Rahman, A. Camper, H. Baribeau, and M. Edwards. 2009. “Lead Contamination of Potable Water Due to Nitrification.” Environmental Science and Technology 43: 1890–1895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., T.J Tseng, C. Andrews-Tate, R.C. Cheng, and K.L. Wattier. 2012. “Pilot-scale Evaluation of Blending Desalinated Seawater into a Distribution System.” Journal American Water Works Association 104: E416–E429.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zietz, B., J. Dassel de Vergara, S. Kevekordes, and H. Dunkelberg. 2001. “Lead Contamination in Tap Water of Households with Children in Lower Saxony, Germany.” Science of the Total Environment 275: 19–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar