Small-Ion and Nano-Aerosol Production During Candle Burning: Size Distribution and Concentration Profile with Time

REFERENCES

• Abt , E. , Suh , H. H. , Allen , G. and Koutrakis , P. 2000 . Characterization of Indoor Particle Sources: A Study Conducted in the Metropolitan Boston Area . Environ. Health Perspect. , 108 : 35 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afshari , A. , Matson , U. and Ekberg , L. E. 2005 . Characterization of Indoor Sources of Fine and Ultrafine Particles: A Study Conducted in a Full—Scale Chamber . Indoor Air , 15 : 141 – 150 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Apicella , B. , Ciajolo , A. , Suelves , I. , Morgan , T. J. , Herod , A. A. and Kandiyoti , R. 2002 . Structural Characterization of Products from Fuel—Rich Combustion: An Approach Based on Size Exclusion Chromatography . Combust. Sci. Technol. , 174 : 345 – 359 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , D. M. , Wilson , M. R. , MacNee , W. , Stone , V. and Donaldson , K. 2001 . Size-Dependent Proinflammatory Effects of Ultrafine Polystyrene Particles: A Role for Surface Area and Oxidative Stress in the Enhanced Activity of Ultrafines . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 175 : 191 – 199 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burtscher , H. , Reis , A. and Schmidt-Ott , A. 1986 . Particle Charge in Combustion Aerosols . J. Aerosol Sci. , 17 : 47 – 51 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cecere , D. , Sgro , L. A. , Basile , G. , D'Alessio , A. and D'Anna , A. 2002 . Evidence and Characterization of Nanoparticles Produced in Nonsooting Premixed Flames . Combust. Sci. Technol. , 174 : 377 – 398 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapman , S. and Cowling , T. G. 1970 . The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform Gases , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , B. S. , Xiong , J. Q. , Fang , C. P. and Li , W. 1998 . Deposition of Charged Particles on Lung Airways . Health Physics , 74 : 554 – 560 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Alessio , A. , Barone , A. C. , Cau , R. , D'Anna , A. and Minutolo , P. 2005 . Surface Deposition and Coagulation Efficiency of Combustion Generated Nanoparticles in the Size Range from 1 to 10 nm . Proc. Combust. Inst. , 30 ( 2 ) : 2595 – 2603 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobbins , R. A. , Fletcher , R. A. and Chang , H. C. 1998 . The Evolution of Soot Precursor Particles in a Diffusion Flame . Combust. Flame , 115 : 285 – 298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donaldson , K. , Li , X. Y. and MacNee , W. 1998 . Ultrafine (Nanometre) Particle Mediated Lung Injury . J. Aerosol Sci. , 29 : 553 – 560 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fews , A. P. 2001 . University of Bristol . Internal report
   Google Scholar
• Fews , A. P. , Holden , N. K. , Keitch , P. A. and Henshaw , D. L. 2005 . A Novel High-Resolution Small-Ion Spectrometer to Study Nucleation of Aerosols in Ambient Indoor and Outdoor Air . Atmos. Res. , 76 : 29 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• Fialkov , A. B. 1997 . Investigations on Ions in Flames . Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. , 23 : 399 – 528 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fine , P. M. , Cass , G. R. and Simoneit , B. R. T. 1999 . Characterization of Fine Particle Emissions from Burning Church Candles . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 33 : 2352 – 2362 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flagan , R. C. 1998 . History of Electrical Aerosol Measurements . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 28 : 301 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerdien , H. 1905 . Demonstration Eines Apparates Zur Absoluten Messung Der Elektrischen Leitfahigkeit Der Luft . Phys. Z. , 6 : 800 – 801 .
   Google Scholar
• Grotheer , H. H. , Pokorny , H. , Barth , K. L. , Thierley , M. and Aigner , M. 2004 . Mass Spectrometry up to 1 Million Mass Units for the Simultaneous Detection of Primary Soot and of Soot Precursors (Nanoparticles) in Flames . Chemosphere , 57 : 1335 – 1342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinds , W. C. 1982 . Aerosol Technology , New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Huynh , C. K. , Savolainen , H. , Vu-Duc , T. , Guillemin , M. and Iselin , F. 1991 . Impact of Thermal Proofing of a Church on its Indoor air Quality: The Combustion of Candles and Incense as a Source of Pollution . Sci. Total Environ. , 102 : 241 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) . 1994 . Human Respiratory Tract Model For Radiological Protection , Oxford, , U.K. : Pergamon Press . ICRP Publication 66
   Google Scholar
• Karasev , V. V. , Ivanova , N. A. , Sadykova , A. R. , Kukhareva , N. , Baklanov , A. M. , Onischuk , A. A. , Kovalev , F. D. and Beresnev , S. A. 2004 . Formation of Charged Soot Aggregates by Combustion and Pyrolysis: Charge Distribution and Photophoresis . J. Aerosol Sci. , 35 : 363 – 381 .
   Google Scholar
• LaRosa , L. E. , Buckley , T. J. and Wallace , L. A. 2002 . Real-Time Indoor and Outdoor Measurements of Black Carbon in an Occupied House: An Examination of Sources . J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. , 52 : 41 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , C. S. , Lin , W. H. and Jenq , F. T. 1993 . Size Distributions of Submicrometer Aerosols from Cooking . Environ. Int. , 19 : 147 – 154 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , N. , Sioutas , C. , Cho , A. , Schmitz , D. , Misra , C. , Sempf , J. , Wang , M. , Oberley , T. , Froines , J. and Nel , A. 2003 . Ultrafine Particulate Pollutants Induce Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Damage . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 455 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , W. and Hopke , P. K. 1993 . Initial Size Distributions and Hygroscopicity of Indoor Combustion Aerosol Particles . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 19 : 305 – 316 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lighty , J. S. , Veranth , J. M. and Sarofim , A. F. 2000 . Combustion Aerosols: Factors Governing Their Size and Composition and Implications to Human Health . J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. , 50 : 1565 – 1618 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClelland , J. A. 1898 . On the Conductivity of the Hot Gases from Flames . Phil. Mag. , 46 : 29 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• Mannix , R. C. , Nguyen , K. P. , Tan , E. W. , Ho , E. E. and Phalen , R. F. 1996 . Physical Characterization of Incense Aerosols . Sci. Total Environ. , 193 : 149 – 158 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matson , U. 2005 . Indoor and Outdoor Concentrations of Ultrafine Particles in Some Scandinavian Rural and Urban Areas . Sci. Total Environ. , 343 : 169 – 176 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard , A. D. and Kuempel , E. D. 2005 . Airborne Nanostructured Particles and Occupational Health . J. Nanoparticle Res. , 7 : 587 – 614 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulholland , G. and Ohlemiller , T. J. 1982 . Aerosol Characterization of a Smoldering Source . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 1 : 59 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murr , L. E. , Bang , J. J. , Esquivel , E. V. , Guerrero , P. A. and Lopez , D. A. 2004 . Carbon Nanotubes, Nanocrystal Forms, and Complex Nanoparticle Aggregates in Common Fuel—Gas Combustion Sources and the Ambient Air . J. Nanoparticle Res. , 6 : 241 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oanh , N. T. K. , Reutergårdh , L. B. and Dung , N. T. 1999 . Emission of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Particulate Matter from Domestic Combustion of Selected Fuels . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 33 : 2703 – 2709 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster , G. 2000 . Toxicology of Ultrafine Particles: In Vivo Studies . Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A , 358 : 2719 – 2740 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster , G. , Sharp , Z. , Atudorei , V. , Elder , A. , Gelein , R. , Kreyling , W. and Cox , C. 2004 . Translocation of Inhaled Ultrafine Particles to the Brain . Inhal. Toxicol. , 16 : 437 – 445 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster , G. , Oberdörster , E. and Oberdörster , J. 2005 . Nanotoxicology: An Emerging Discipline Evolving from Studies of Ultrafine Particles . Environ. Health Perspect. , 113 : 823 – 839 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Przybilla , K. , Burtscher , H. , Qian , Z. and Matter , U. 2002 . Ultrafine Particle Emissions of Residential Oil Burners: Influence of Burner Type, Fuel and Additives . Combust. Sci. Technol. , 174 : 49 – 66 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raiyani , C. V. , Shah , S. H. , Desai , N. M. , Venkaiah , K. , Patel , J. S. , Parikh , D. J. and Kashyap , S. K. 1993 . Characterization and Problems of Indoor Pollution Due to Cooking Stove Smoke . Atmos. Environ. , 27A : 1643 – 1655 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rezaei , K. , Wang , T. and Johnson , L. A. 2002 . Combustion Characteristics of Candles Made from Hydrogenated Soybean Oil . J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. , 79 : 803 – 808 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seaton , A. , MacNee , W. , Donaldson , K. and Godden , D. 1995 . Particulate Air Pollution and Acute Health Effects . Lancet , 345 : 176 – 178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sgro , L. A. , Basile , G. , Barone , A. C. , D'Anna , A. , Minutolo , P. , Borghese , A. and D'Alessio , A. 2003 . Detection of Combustion Formed Nanoparticles . Chemosphere , 51 : 1079 – 1090 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi , J. P. , Evans , D. E. , Khan , A. A. and Harrison , R. M. 2001 . Sources and Concentration of Nanoparticles (< 10 nm Diameter) in the Urban Atmosphere . Atmos. Environ. , 35 : 1193 – 1202 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoeger , T. , Reinhard , C. , Takenaka , S. , Schroeppel , A. , Karg , E. , Ritter , B. , Heyder , J. and Schulz , H. 2006 . Instillation of Six Different Ultrafine Carbon Particles Indicates a Surface Area Threshold Dose for Acute Lung Inflammation in Mice . Environ. Health Perspect. , 114 : 328 – 333 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tammet , H. 1995 . Size and Mobility of Nanometer Particles, Clusters and Ions . J. Aerosol Sci. , 26 : 459 – 475 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeleny , J. 1900 . The Velocity of Ions Produced in Gases by Röntgen Rays . Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A , 195 : 193 – 234 .
   Google Scholar