Condensational Growth May Contribute to the Enhanced Deposition of Cigarette Smoke Particles in the Upper Respiratory Tract

REFERENCES

• Allen , M. D. and Ratable , O. G. 1985 . Slip Correction Measurements of Spherical Solid Aerosol Particles in an Improved Millikan Apparatus . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 4 : 269 – 286 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker , R. R. and Dixon , M. 2006 . The Retention of Tobacco Smoke Constituents in the Human Respiratory Tract . Inhal. Toxicol. , 17 : 255 – 294 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balashazy , I. , Hofmann , W. and Heistracher , T. 1999 . Computation of Local Enhancement Factors for the Quantification of Particle Deposition Patterns in Airway Bifurcations . J. Aerosol Sci. , 30 : 185 – 203 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balashazy , I. , Hofmann , W. and Heistracher , T. 2003 . Local Particle Deposition Patterns May Play a Key Role in the Development of Lung Cancer . Translat. Physiol. , 94 : 1719 – 1725 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumberger , J. P. 1923 . The Amount of Smoke Produced From Tobacco and Its Absorption in Smoking As Determined By Electrical Precipitation . J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therapy , 21 : 47 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Bernstein , G. M. 2004 . A Review of the Influence of Particle Size, Puff Volume, and Inhalation Pattern on the Deposition of Cigarette Smoke Particles in the Respiratory Tract . Inhal. Toxicol. , 16 : 675 – 689 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bird , R. B. , Steward , W. E. and Lightfoot , E. N. 1960 . Transport Phenomena , New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Black , A. and Pritchard , J. N. 1984 . A Comparison of the Regional Deposition and Short–Term Clearance of Tar Particulate Material from Cigarette Smoke, With That of 2.5 Micrometer Polystyrene Microspheres . J. Aerosol Sci. , 15 ( 3 ) : 224 – 227 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broday , D. M. and Georgopoulous , G. 2001 . Growth and Deposition of Hygroscopic Particulate Matter in the Human Lung . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 34 : 144 – 159 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broday , D. M. and Robinson , R. 2003 . Application of Cloud Dynamics to Dosimetry of Cigarette Smoke Particles in the Lungs . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 37 : 510 – 527 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryson , C. C. and Spencer , H. 1951 . Carcinoma of the Bronchus . Quarterly J. Medicine , 78 : 173 – 186 .
   Google Scholar
• Chan , T. L. , Schreck , R. M. and Lippmann , M. 1980 . Effect of the Laryngeal Jet on Particle Deposition in the Human Trachea and Upper Bronchial Airways . J. Aerosol Sci. , 11 : 447 – 459 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng , K. H. , Cheng , Y. S. , Yeh , H. C. and Swift , D. L. 1997a . An Experimental Method for Measuring Aerosol Deposition Efficiency in the Human Oral Airway . Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. , 58 : 207 – 213 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng , K. H. , Cheng , Y. S. , Yeh , H. C. and Swift , D. L. 1997b . Measurements of Airway Dimensions and Calculation of Mass Transfer Characteristics of the Human Oral Passage . J. Biomechan. Engineer. , 119 : 476 – 482 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng , Y. S. , Su , Y. F. , Yeh , H. C. and Swift , D. L. 1993 . Deposition of Thoron Progeny in Human Head Airways . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 18 : 359 – 375 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clift , R. , Grace , J. R. and Weber , M. E. 1978 . Bubbles, Drops, and Particles , New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , B. S. , Sussman , R. G. and Lippmann , M. 1990 . Ultrafine Particle Deposition in a Human Tracheobronchial Cast . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 12 : 1082 – 1093 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowe , C. T. , Troutt , T. R. and Chung , J. N. 1996 . Numerical Models for Two-Phase Turbulent Flows . Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. , 28 : 11 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davies , C. N. 1988 . Cigarette Smoke: Generation and Properties of the Aerosol . J. Aerosol Sci. , 19 : 463 – 469 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doll , R. and Hill , A. B. 1950 . Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung: Preliminary Report . BMJ , 2 : 739 – 748 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ermala , P. and Holsti , L. R. 1955 . Distribution and Absorption of Tobacco Tar in the Organs of the Respiratory Tract . Cancer , 8 : 673 – 678 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feng , S. , Plunkett , S. E. , Lam , K. , Kapur , S. , Mahammad , R. , Jin , Y. , Zimmermann , M. , Mendes , P. , Kinser , R. and Roethig , J. 2006 . A New Method for Estimating the Retention of Selected Smoke Constituents in the Respiratory Tract of Smokers During Cigarette Smoking . Inhal. Toxicol. , 19 : 169 – 179 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferron , G. A. 1977 . The Size of Soluble Aerosol Particles as a Function of the Humidity of the Air: Application to the Human Respiratory Tract . J. Aerosol Sci. , 3 : 251 – 267 .
   Google Scholar
• Ferron , G. A. , Haider , B. and Kreyling , W. G. 1984 . Conditions for Measuring Supersaturation in the Human Lung Using Aerosols . J. Aerosol Sci. , 15 : 211 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferron , G. A. , Kreyling , W. G. and Haider , B. 1988 . Inhalation of Salt Aerosol Particles—II. Growth and Deposition in the Human Respiratory Tract . J. Aerosol Sci. , 19 ( 5 ) : 611 – 631 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finlay , W. H. 1998 . Estimating the Type of Hygroscopic Behavior Exhibited by Aqueous Droplets . J. Aerosol Med. , 11 ( 4 ) : 221 – 229 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Finlay , W. H. 2001 . The Mechanics of Inhaled Pharmaceutical Aerosols , San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Finlay , W. H. and Stapleton , K. W. 1995 . The Effect on Regional Lung Deposition of Coupled Heat and Mass-Transfer Between Hygroscopic Droplets and Their Surrounding Phase . J. Aerosol Sci. , 26 ( 4 ) : 655 – 670 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuchs , N. A. 1964 . The Mechanics of Aerosols , Oxford : Pergamon .
   Google Scholar
• Fuchs , N. A. and Sutugin , A. G. 1970 . Highly Dispersed Aerosols , Ann Arbor : Ann Arbor Science Publ. .
   Google Scholar
• Ghalichi , F. , Deng , X. , Champlain , A. D. , Douville , Y. , King , M. and Guidoin , R. 1998 . Low Reynolds Number Turbulence Modeling of Blood Flow in Arterial Stenoses . Biorheology , 35 ( 4&5 ) : 281 – 294 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosman , A. D. and Ioannides , E. 1981 . Aspects of Computer Simulation of Liquid-Fueled Combustors . J. Energy , 7 : 482 – 490 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , D. W. 1997 . Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook , New York : Mcgraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Hicks , J. F. , Prichard , J. N. , Black , A. and Megaw , W. J. 1986 . “ Experimental Evaluation of Aerosol Growth in the Human Respiratory Tract ” . In Aerosols: Formation and Reactivity , 244 – 247 . Oxford : Pergamon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hinds , W. C. 1999 . Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles , New York : John Wiley and Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Hinds , W. C. , First , M. W. , Huber , G. L. and Shea , J. W. 1983 . A Method for Measuring Respiratory Deposition of Cigarette Smoke During Smoking . Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. , 44 : 113 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horsfield , K. , Dart , G. , Olson , D. E. , Filley , G. F. and Cumming , G. 1971 . Models of the Human Bronchial Tree . J. Applied Physiol. , 31 : 207 – 217 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ICRP . 1994 . Human Respiratory Tract Model for Radiological Protection , New York : Elsevier Science Ltd. .
   Google Scholar
• Ingebrethsen , B. J. 1989 . “ The Physical Properties of Mainstream Cigarette Smoke and their Relationship to Deposition in the Respiratory Tract ” . In Extrapolation of Dosimetric Relationships for Inhaled Particles and Gases , Edited by: Crapo , J. D. , Smolko , E. D. , Miller , F. J. , Graham , J. A. and Hayes , A. W. San Diego : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ishizu , Y. , Ohta , K. and Okada , T. 1980 . The Effect of Moisture on the Growth of Cigarette Smoke Particles . Beitr. Zur Tabakforschung , 10 : 161 – 168 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins , R. W. , Francis , R. W. , Flachsbart , H. and Stober , W. 1979 . Chemical Variability of Mainstream Cigarette Smoke as a Function of Aerodynamic Particle Size . J. Aerosol Science , 10 : 355 – 362 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman , J. W. and Farahmand , K. 2006 . In Vivo Measurements of Human Oral Cavity Heat and Water Vapor Transport . Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. , 150 : 261 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keith , C. H. 1982 . Particle Size Studies on Tobacco Smoke . Beitr. Zur Tabakforschung , 11 ( 3 ) : 123 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keith , C. H. and Tesh , P. G. 1965 . Measurement of the Total Smoke Issuing from A Burning Cigarette . Tobacco Sci. , 9 : 61 – 64 .
   Google Scholar
• Kim , J. , Moin , P. and Moser , R. D. 1987 . Turbulence Statistics in Fully Developed Channel Flow at Low Reynolds Number . J. Fluid Mech. , 177 : 133 – 166 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , W. 1993 . The Hygroscopicity of Indoor Aerosol Particles , New York : Clarkson University .
   Google Scholar
• Li , W. and Hopke , P. K. 1993 . Initial Size Distributions and Hygroscopicity of Indoor Combustion Aerosol Particles . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 19 : 305 – 316 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longest , P. W. and Kleinstreuer , C. 2005 . Computational Models for Simulating Multicomponent Aerosol Evaporation in the Upper Respiratory Airways . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 39 : 124 – 138 .
   Google Scholar
• Longest , P. W. , Kleinstreuer , C. and Buchanan , J. R. 2004 . Efficient Computation of Micro–Particle Dynamics Including Wall Effects . Computers & Fluids , 33 ( 4 ) : 577 – 601 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longest , P. W. and Oldham , M. J. 2006 . Mutual Enhancements of CFD Modeling and Experimental Data: A Case Study of One Micrometer Particle Deposition in a Branching Airway Model . Inhal. Toxicol. , 18 ( 10 ) : 761 – 772 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longest , P. W. and Vinchurkar , S. 2007a . Effects of Mesh Style and Grid Convergence on Particle Deposition in Bifurcating Airway Models With Comparisons to Experimental Data . Medical Engineering and Physics , 29 ( 3 ) : 350 – 366 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longest , P. W. and Vinchurkar , S. 2007b . Validating CFD Predictions of Respiratory Aerosol Deposition: Effects of Upstream Transition and Turbulence . J. Biomech. , 40 : 305 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longest , P. W. , Vinchurkar , S. and Martonen , T. B. 2006 . Transport and Deposition of Respiratory Aerosols in Models of Childhood Asthma . J. Aerosol Sci. , 37 : 1234 – 1257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longest , P. W. and Xi , J. 2007 . Effectiveness of Direct Lagrangian Tracking Models for Simulating Nanoparticle Deposition in the Upper Airways . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 41 : 380 – 397 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumb , A. B. 2000 . Nunn's Applied Respiratory Physiology , Oxford : Butterworth Heinemann .
   Google Scholar
• Ma , B. and Lutchen , K. R. 2006 . an Anatomically Based Hybrid Computational Model of the Human Lung and Its Application to Low Frequency Oscillatory Mechanics . Ann. Biomed. Engineer. , 34 ( 11 ) : 1691 – 1704 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martonen , T. B. 1986 . “ Surrogate Experimental Models for Studying Particle Deposition in the Human Respiratory Tract: An Overview ” . In Aerosols , Edited by: Lee , S. D. Chesea, Michigan : Lewis Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Martonen , T. B. 1992 . Deposition Patterns of Cigarette Smoke in Human Airways . Amer. Indust. Hygiene Assoc. J. , 53 ( 1 ) : 6 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martonen , T. B. , Hoffmann , W. and Lowe , J. E. 1987 . Cigarette Smoke and Lung Cancer . Health Physics , 52 ( 2 ) : 213 – 217 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matida , E. A. , Finlay , W. H. and Grgic , L. B. 2004 . Improved Numerical Simulation of Aerosol Deposition in an Idealized Mouth-Throat . J. Aerosol Sci. , 35 : 1 – 19 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matida , E. A. , Nishino , K. and Torii , K. 2000 . Statistical Simulation of Particle Deposition on the Wall from Turbulent Dispersed Pipe Flow . Intl. J. Heat and Fluid Flow , 21 : 389 – 402 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mcaughey , J. J. , Pritchard , J. N. , Black , A. , Hoare , G. C. and Knight , D. A. 1991 . Tar Retention and Regional Lung Deposition Male and Female Smokers Switching to Products With Lower Tar Yields , Oxfordshire, , U. K. : Didcot . AEA Technology Report AEAT–0159
   Google Scholar
• Mcfadden , E. R. , Pichurko , B. M. and Bowman , H. F. 1985 . Thermal Mapping of the Airways in Humans . J. Appl. Physiol. , 58 : 564 – 570 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morsi , S. A. and Alexander , A. J. 1972 . An Investigation of Particle Trajectories in Two-Phase Flow Systems . J. Fluid Mech. , 55 ( 2 ) : 193 – 208 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muller , W. , Hess , G. D. and Scherer , P. W. 1990 . A Model of Cigarette Smoke Particle Deposition . Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. , 51 : 245 – 256 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NCRP . 1997 . Deposition, Retention and Dosimetry of Inhaled Radioactive Substances , Bethesda : National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements .
   Google Scholar
• Norman , V. 1977 . An Overview of the Vapor Phase, Semivolatile and Nonvolatile Components of Cigarette Smoke . Tobacco Sci. , 3 : 28 – 58 .
   Google Scholar
• Pedley , T. J. 1977 . Pulmonary Fluid Dynamics . Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics , 9 : 229 – 274 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phalen , R. F. , Oldham , M. J. and Mannix , R. C. 1994 . Cigarette Smoke Deposition in the Tracheobronchial Tree: Evidence for Colligative Effects . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 20 : 215 – 226 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pritchard , J. N. and Black , A. 1984 . “ An Estimation of the Tar Particulate Material Depositing in the Respiratory Tracts of Healthy Male Middle– and Low-Tar Cigarette Smokers ” . In Aerosols , Edited by: Liu , Pue and Fissan . 989 – 992 . New York : Elsevier Science .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , R. and Yu , C. P. 1998 . Theoretical Analysis of Hygroscopic Growth Rate of Mainstream and Sidestream Cigarette Smoke Particles in the Human Respiratory Tract . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 28 : 21 – 32 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , R. J. and Yu , C. P. 1999 . Coagulation of Cigarette Smoke Particles . J. Aerosol Sci. , 30 ( 4 ) : 533 – 548 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , R. J. and Yu , C. P. 2001 . Deposition of Cigarette Smoke Particles in the Human Respiratory Tract . Aerosol Sci. Technol. , 34 : 202 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarangapani , R. and Wexler , A. S. 1996 . Growth and Neutralization of Sulfate Aerosols in Human Airways . J. Applied Physiol. , 81 ( 1 ) : 480 – 490 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schlesinger , R. B. , Gurman , J. L. and Lippmann , M. 1982 . Particle Deposition Within Bronchial Airways: Comparisons Using Constant and Cyclic Inspiratory Flows . Ann. Occup. Hyg. , 26 : 47 – 64 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stober , W. 1984 . Lung Dynamics and Uptake of Smoke Constituents by Nonsmokers—A Survey . Preventive Medicine , 13 ( 6 ) : 589 – 601 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• US Department of Health and Human Services . 2004 . The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General , U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Coordination Center for Health Promotion, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health .
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Health and Human Services . 2006 . The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General—Executive Summary , U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Coordination Center for Health Promotion, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health .
   Google Scholar
• Vargaftik , N. B. 1975 . Tables on Thermophysical Properties of Liquids and Gases , Washington, DC : Hemisphere .
   Google Scholar
• Wang , Y. and James , P. W. 1999 . On the Effect of Anisotropy on the Turbulent Dispersion and Deposition of Small Particles . Intl. J. Multiphase Flow , 22 : 551 – 558 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO . 2002 . Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Volume 83
   Google Scholar
• Wilcox , D. C. 1998 . Turbulence Modeling for CFD, , 2nd Ed. , California : DCW Industries, Inc. .
   Google Scholar
• Woodman , G. , Newman , S. P. , Pavia , D. and Clarke , S. W. 1984 . Temperature and Calibration Corrects to Puff Volume Measurements in Cigarette Smoke . Phys. Med. Biol. , 29 ( 11 ) : 1437 – 1440 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wynder , E. L. and Graham , E. A. 1950 . Tobacco Smoking as a Possible Etiologic Factor in Bronchiogenic Carcinoma. A Study of Six Hundred and Eighty-Four Proved Cases . JAMA , 143 : 329 – 336 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xi , J. and Longest , P. W. 2007 . Transport and Deposition of Micro-Aerosols in Realistic and Simplified Models of the Oral Airway . Ann. Biomed. Engineer. , 35 ( 4 ) : 560 – 581 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xi , J. and Longest , P. W. 2008 . Effects of Oral Airway Geometry Characteristics on the Diffusional Deposition of Inhaled Nanoparticles . ASME J. Biomech. Engineer. , 130 : 011008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang , C. P. , Callagher , R. P. , Weiss , N. S. , Band , P. R. , Thomas , D. B. and Russel , D. A. 1989 . Differences in Incidence Rates of Cancers of the Respiratory Tract by Anatomic Subside and Histological Type: An Etiologic Implication . J. National Cancer Institute , 81 ( 21 ) : 1828 – 1831 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yeh , H. C. and Schum , G. M. 1980 . Models of Human Lung Airways and their Application to Inhaled Particle Deposition . Bull. Math. Biology , 42 : 461 – 480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang , Z. , Kleinstreuer , C. , Donohue , J. F. and Kim , C. S. 2005 . Comparison of Micro- and Nano-Size Particle Depositions in a Human Upper Airway Model . J. Aerosol Sci. , 36 ( 2 ) : 211 – 233 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar