References
- Alibrahim, O., N. Elawad, Y. A. Misau, T. M. Shaikh, and N. Allam. 2012. Drug dependence and psychotic symptoms: A retrospective study of adolescents who abuse drugs at Al-Amal hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Public Health in Africa e5. 3 (1):5. doi:https://doi.org/10.4081/jphia.2012.e5.
- Al-Salman, A. S. A. 2013. The Saudi Arabian adaptation of the Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination revised (ACE-R). Glasgow: University Glasgow. 40–65.
- Amitai, N., S. Powell, M. Weber, N. R. Swerdlow, and J. W. Young. December 2015. Negative visuospatial priming in isolation-reared rats: Evidence of resistance to the disruptive effects of amphetamine. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience 15(4):901–14. doi: https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0369-0.
- Bachner, Y. G. January-February 2016. Psychometric properties of responses to an Arabic version of the Hamilton depression rating scale (HAM-D6). Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association 22(1):27–30. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390316629959.
- Bagby, R. M., A. G. Ryder, D. R. Schuller, and M. B. Marshall. December 2004. The Hamilton depression rating scale: Has the gold standard become a lead weight? American Journal of Psychiatry 161(12):2163–77. doi: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2163.
- Bassiony, M. 2013. Substance use disorders in Saudi Arabia: Review article. Journal of Substance Use 18 (6):450–66. doi:https://doi.org/10.3109/14659891.2011.606349.
- Bernheim, A., R. E. See, and C. M. Reichel October 2016. Chronic methamphetamine self-administration disrupts cortical control of cognition. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 69:36–48. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07.020.
- Brown, P., R. M. Heirene, G. Roderique-Davies, B. John, and J. J. Evans. November 2019. Applicability of the ACE-III and RBANS cognitive tests for the detection of alcohol-related brain damage. Frontiers in Psychology 28(10):2636. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02636.
- Cassidy, C. M., P. D. Balsam, J. J. Weinstein, R. J. Rosengard, M. Slifstein, N. D. Daw, A. Abi-Dargham, and G. Horga. 2018. A perceptual inference mechanism for hallucinations linked to striatal dopamine. e4. Current Biology 28 (4):503–14. Accessed February 19. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.12.059.
- Cheung, G., A. Clugston, M. Croucher, D. Malone, E. Mau, A. Sims, and S. Gee. 2015. Performance of three cognitive screening tools in a sample of older New Zealanders. International Psychogeriatrics 27 (6):981–89. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610214002889.
- Chooi, W. T., N. Mohd Zaharim, A. Desrosiers, I. Ahmad, M. A. A. Yasin, S. Z. Syed Jaapar, R. S. Schottenfeld, B. K. Vicknasingam, and M. C. Chawarski. 2017. Early Initiation of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants (ATS) Use Associated with Lowered Cognitive Performance among Individuals with Co-Occurring Opioid and ATS Use Disorders in Malaysia. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 49(4):326–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2017.1342152. PMID: 28661714; PMCID: PMC6218246
- Chung, A., I. K. Lyoo, S. J. Kim, J. Hwang, S. C. Bae, Y. H. Sung, M. E. Sim, I. C. Song, J. Kim, K. H. Chang, et al. December 2007. Decreased frontal white-matter integrity in abstinent methamphetamine abusers. The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 10(6):765–75. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1461145706007395.
- Dean, A. C., S. M. Groman, A. M. Morales, and E. D. London. January 2013. An evaluation of the evidence that methamphetamine abuse causes cognitive decline in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 38(2):259–74. doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2012.179.
- Elsayed, Y. A., M. Al-Zahrani, and M. M. Rashad. 2010. Characteristics of mentally ill offenders from 100 psychiatric court reports. Annals of General Psychiatry 9:4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-859X-9-4.
- Ersche, K. D., L. Clark, M. London, T. W. Robbins, and B. J. Sahakian. 2006. Profile of executive and memory function associated with amphetamine and opiate dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology 31 (5):1036. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300889.
- Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., and J. Daumann. 2009. Neurotoxicity of drugs of abuse–the case of methylenedioxyamphetamines (MDMA, ecstasy), and amphetamines. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 11 (3):305–17. Review.
- Hartigan, J. A., and M. A. Wong. 1979. Algorithm AS 136: A K-means clustering algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series C, Applied Statistics 28 (1):100–08.
- Horner, M. D. 1999. Attentional functioning in abstinent cocaine abusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 54:19–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00141-0.
- Hsieh, S., S. Schubert, C. Hoon, E. Mioshi, and J. Hodges. 2013. Validation of the Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination III in frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 36:242–50. doi:https://doi.org/10.1159/000351671.
- Ibrahim, Y., S. M. Hussain, S. Alnasser, H. Almohandes, and I. Sarhandi. September-October 2018. Patterns and sociodemographic characteristics of substance abuse in Al Qassim, Saudi Arabia: A retrospective study at a psychiatric rehabilitation center. Annals of Saudi Medicine 38(5):319–25. doi: https://doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.2018.319.
- Johnston, B. A., S. Tolomeo, V. Gradin, D. Christmas, K. Matthews, and J. Douglas Steele. 2016. Failure of hippocampal deactivation during loss events in treatment-resistant depression. Brain 138 (9):2766–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awv177.
- Kalechstein, A. D., T. F. Newton, and M. Green. 2003. Methamphetamine dependence is associated with neurocognitive dysfunction in the initial phases of abstinence. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 15 (2):215–20. Spring. doi:https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.15.2.215.
- Kirrane, R. M., V. Mitropoulou, M. Nunn, A. S. New, P. D. Harvey, F. Schopick, J. Silverman, and L. J. Siever. January 2000. Effects of amphetamine on visuospatial working memory performance in schizophrenia spectrum personality disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 22(1):14–18. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0893-133X(99)00075-5.
- Maxwell, J. C., and B. A. Rutkowski. 2008. The prevalence of methamphetamine and amphetamine abuse in North America: A review of the indicators, 1992-2007. Drug and Alcohol Review 27 (3):229–35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230801919460.
- Mazhari, S., Z. Keshvari, A. Sabahi, and S. Mottaghian. 2015. Assessment of cognitive functions in methadone maintenance patients. Addiction & Health 7 (3–4):109–16. Summer-Autumn.
- Mirza, N., M. Panagioti, M. W. Waheed, and W. Waheed. September13, 2017.Reporting of the translation and cultural adaptation procedures of the Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination version III (ACE-III) and its predecessors: A systematic review. BMC Medical Research Methodology 171: 141.doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-017-0413-6
- Ornstein, T. J., J. L. Iddon, A. M. Baldacchino, B. J. Sahakian, M. London, B. J. Everitt, and T. W. Robbins. August 2000. Profiles of cognitive dysfunction in chronic amphetamine and heroin abusers. Neuropsychopharmacology 23(2):113–26. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0893-133X(00)00097-X.
- Park, S. B., J. T. Coull, R. H. McShane, A. H. Young, B. J. Sahakian, T. W. Robbins, and P. J. Cowen. 1994. Tryptophan depletion in normal volunteers produces selective impairments in learning and memory. Neuropharmacology 33(3–4):575-88. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3908(94)90089-2. PMID: 7984295
- Paul, K., S. Kang, C. L. Cox, and J. M. Gulley. August 1, 2016. Repeated exposure to amphetamine during adolescence alters inhibitory tone in the medial prefrontal cortex following drug re-exposure in adulthood. Behavioural Brain Research 309: 9–13. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2016.04.018.
- Paulus, M. P., S. F. Tapert, and M. A. Schuckit. July 2005. Neural activation patterns of methamphetamine-dependent subjects during decision making predict relapse. Archives of General Psychiatry 62(7):761–68. doi: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.7.761.
- Peleg-Raibstein, D., B. K. Yee, J. Feldon, and J. Hauser. November 2009. The amphetamine sensitization model of schizophrenia: Relevance beyond psychotic symptoms? Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 206(4):603–21. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-009-1514-7.
- Reske, M., C. A. Eidt, D. C. Delis, and M. P. Paulus. 2010. Nondependent stimulant users of cocaine and prescription amphetamines show verbal learning and memory deficits. Biological Psychiatry 68:762–69. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.021.
- Riedel, W. J., T. Klaassen, N. E. Deutz, A. van Someren, H. M. van Praag. 1999. Tryptophan depletion in normal volunteers produces selective impairment in memory consolidation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 141(4):362–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130050845. PMID: 10090643
- Rogers, R. D., B. J. Everitt, A. Baldacchino, A. J. Blackshaw, R. Swainson, K. Wynne, N. B. Baker, J. Hunter, T. Carthy, E. Booker, M. London, J. F. Deakin, B. J. Sahakian, and T. W. Robbins. 1999. Dissociable deficits in the decision-making cognition of chronic amphetamine abusers, opiate abusers, patients with focal damage to prefrontal cortex, and tryptophan-depleted normal volunteers: evidence for monoaminergic mechanisms. Neuropsychopharmacology 20(4):322–39. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0893-133X(98)00091-8. PMID: 10088133
- Rogers, R. D., and T. W. Robbins. April 2001. Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 11(2):250–57. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00204-X.
- Rosselli, M., and A. Ardila. 1996. Cognitive effects of cocaine and polydrug abuse. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 18:122–35. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639608408268.
- Schmaal, L., D. J. Veltman, T. G. van erp, P. G. Sämann, T. Frodl, N. Jahanshad, E. Loehrer, H. Tiemeier, A. Hofman, W. J. Niessen et al. 2016. Subcortical brain alterations in major depressive disorder: Findings from the ENIGMA major depressive disorder working group. Molecular Psychiatry. 21(6):806. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2015.69.
- Seiden, L. S., K. E. Sabol, and G. A. Ricaurte. 1993. Amphetamine: Effects on catecholamine systems and behavior. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 33:639–77. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pa.33.040193.003231.
- Shukla, M., S. Maitra, J. F. Hernandez, P. Govitrapong, and B. Vincent. May 14 2019. Methamphetamine regulates βAPP processing in human neuroblastoma cells. Neuroscience Letters 701: 20–25. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2019.02.023.
- Smelson, D. A., A. Roy, S. Santana, C. Engelhart, et al. 1999. Neuropsychological deficits in withdrawn cocaine-dependent males. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 25(2):377–81. doi:https://doi.org/10.1081/ADA-100101867. PMID: 10395167.
- Thompson, E. October 2015. Hamilton rating scale for anxiety (HAM-A). Occupational Medicine (London) 65(7):601. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqv054.
- Tolomeo, S., F. Davey, J. D. Steele, and A. M. Baldacchino. October 2019. Effects of opioid dependence on visuospatial memory and its associations with depression and anxiety. Frontiers in Psychiatry 23(10):743. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00743.
- Toomey, R., M. J. Lyons, S. A. Eisen, H. Xian, S. Chantarujikapong, L. J. Seidman, S. V. Faraone, M. T. Tsuang. 2003. A twin study of the neuropsychological consequences of stimulant abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry 60(3):303–10. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.3.303. PMID: 12622664
- United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2018. Annual report covering activities during 2018. New York, NY: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).
- Whiteford, H. A., L. Degenhardt, J. Rehm, A. J. Baxter, A. J. Ferrari, H. E. Erskine, F. J. Charlson, R. E. Norman, A. D. Flaxman, N. Johns, et al. November 9, 2013.Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: Findings from the Global burden of disease study 2010. Lancet 3829904: 1575–86.doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61611-6
- Xu, T. X., Q. Ma, R. D. Spealman, and W. D. Yao. December 2010. Amphetamine modulation of long-term potentiation in the prefrontal cortex: Dose dependency, monoaminergic contributions, and paradoxical rescue in hyperdopaminergic mutant. Journal of Neurochemistry 115(6):1643–54. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07073.x.
- Zhou, F. C., and S. Bledsoe. 1996. Methamphetamine causes rapid varicosis, perforation and definitive degeneration of serotonin fibers: An immunocytochemical study of serotonin transporters. Neuroscience NET 1009. Freely available as accessed on 31/03/2021 from Available at: http://www.neuroscience.com/manuscripts-1996/1996-009-zhou/1996-009-zhou.html