296
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Associations of Lifetime Nonmedical Opioid, Methamphetamine, and Kratom Use within a Nationally Representative US Sample

ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 429-439 | Received 23 Apr 2021, Accepted 07 Sep 2021, Published online: 29 Nov 2021

References

  • Ahmad, K., and Z. Aziz. 2012. Mitragyna speciosa use in the Northern States of Malaysia: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 (1):446–50.
  • Alsarraf, E., J. Myers, S. Culbreth, and J. Fanikos. 2019. Kratom from head to toe—case reviews of adverse events and toxicities. Current Emergency and Hospital Medicine Reports 7 (4):141–68.
  • Anwar, M., R. Law, and J. Schier. 2016. Notes from the field: Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) exposures reported to poison centers—United States, 2010–2015. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65 (29):748–49.
  • Bath, R., T. Bucholz, A. F. Buros, D. Singh, K. E. Smith, C. A. Veltri, and O. Grundmann. 2020. Self-reported health diagnoses and demographic correlates with kratom use: Results from an online survey. Journal of Addiction Medicine 14 (3):244–52.
  • Boyer, E. W., K. M. Babu, J. E. Adkins, C. R. McCurdy, and J. H. Halpern. 2008. Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia Speciosa Korth). Addiction 103 (6):1048–50.
  • Brecht, M.-L., D. Huang, E. Evans, and Y.-I. Hser. 2008. Polydrug use and implications for longitudinal research: Ten-year trajectories for heroin, cocaine, and methamphetamine users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 96 (3):193–201.
  • Buresh, M. 2018. Treatment of kratom dependence with buprenorphine-naloxone maintenance. Journal of Addiction Medicine 12 (6):481–83.
  • Calcaterra, S., J. Glanz, and I. A. Binswanger. 2013. National trends in pharmaceutical opioid related overdose deaths compared to other substance related overdose deaths: 1999–2009. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 131 (3):263–70.
  • Ciccarone, D. 2019. The triple wave epidemic: Supply and demand drivers of the US opioid overdose crisis. International Journal of Drug Policy 71:183–88.
  • Cicero, T. J., M. S. Ellis, and Z. A. Kasper. 2020. Polysubstance use: A broader understanding of substance use during the opioid crisis. American Journal of Public Health 110 (2):244–50.
  • Coe, M. A., J. L. Pillitteri, M. A. Sembower, K. K. Gerlach, and J. E. Henningfield. 2019. Kratom as a substitute for opioids: Results from an online survey. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 202:24–32.
  • Corkery, J. M., P. Streete, H. Claridge, C. Goodair, D. Papanti, L. Orsolini, F. Schifano, K. Sikka, S. Körber, and A. Hendricks. 2019. Characteristics of deaths associated with kratom use. Journal of Psychopharmacology 33 (9):1102–23.
  • Courtney, K. E., and L. A. Ray. 2014. methamphetamine: an update on epidemiology, pharmacology, clinical phenomenology, and treatment literature. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 143:11–21.
  • Covvey, J. R., S. M. Vogel, A. M. Peckham, and K. E. Evoy. 2020. Prevalence and characteristics of self-reported kratom use in a representative US general population sample. Journal of Addictive Diseases 38 (4):506–13.
  • Davidson, C., D. Cao, T. King, S. T. Weiss, S. Wongvisavakorn, N. Ratprasert, S. Trakulsrichai, and S. Srisuma. 2021. A comparative analysis of kratom exposure cases in Thailand and the United States from 2010–2017. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 47 (1):74–83.
  • Ellis, M. S., Z. A. Kasper, and T. J. Cicero. 2018. twin epidemics: the surging rise of methamphetamine use in chronic opioid users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 193:14–20.
  • Evans, W. N., E. M. Lieber, and P. Power. 2019. How the reformulation of OxyContin ignited the heroin epidemic. Review of Economics and Statistics 101 (1):1–15.
  • Farrell, M., N. K. Martin, E. Stockings, A. Bórquez, J. A. Cepeda, L. Degenhardt, R. Ali, L. T. Tran, J. Rehm J, M. Torrens, et al. 2019. Responding to global stimulant use: Challenges and opportunities. The Lancet 394 (10209):1652–67.
  • Fischer, B., S. Kuganesan, A. Gallassi, R. Malcher-Lopes, W. van Den Brink, and E. Wood. 2015. Addressing the stimulant treatment gap: A call to investigate the therapeutic benefits potential of cannabinoids for crack-cocaine use. International Journal of Drug Policy 26 (12):1177–82.
  • Garcia-Romeu, A., D. J. Cox, K. E. Smith, K. E. Dunn, and R. R. Griffiths. 2020. Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa): User demographics, use patterns, and implications for the opioid epidemic. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 208:107849.
  • Goodwin, R. D., S. J. Moeller, J. Zhu, J. Yarden, S. Ganzhorn, and J. M. Williams. 2021. The potential role of cocaine and heroin co-use in the opioid epidemic in the United States. Addictive Behaviors 113:106680.
  • Griffin, O. H., III, J. A. Daniels, and E. A. Gardner. 2016. Do you get what you paid for? An examination of products advertised as kratom. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 48 (5):330–35.
  • Griffin, O. H., and M. E. Webb. 2018. The scheduling of kratom and selective use of data. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 50 (2):114–20.
  • Grundmann, O., J. K. Babin, J. E. Henningfield, A. Garcia-Romeu, A. C. Kruegel, W. C. Prozialeck, R. B. Raffa, D. Singh, and K. E. Smith. 2021. Kratom use in the United States: A diverse and complex profile. Addiction (Abingdon, England) 116 (1):202–03.
  • Grundmann, O. 2017. Patterns of kratom use and health impact in the us—results from an online survey. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 176:63–70.
  • Guzman, D., and A. Ettenberg. 2004. Heroin attenuates the negative consequences of cocaine in a runway model of self-administration. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 79 (2):317–24.
  • Jalal, H., J. M. Buchanich, M. S. Roberts, L. C. Balmert, K. Zhang, and D. S. Burke. 2018. Changing dynamics of the drug overdose epidemic in the United States from 1979 through 2016. Science 361 (6408). https://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6408/eaau1184.
  • Jansen, K. L. R., and C. J. Prast. 1988. Ethnopharmacology of kratom and the mitragyna alkaloids. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 23 (1):115–19.
  • Jones, C. M., N. Underwood, and W. M. Compton. 2020. Increases in methamphetamine use among heroin treatment admissions in the United States, 2008–17. Addiction 115 (2):347–53.
  • Kamble, S. H., E. C. Berthold, T. I. King, S. R. Raju Kanumuri, R. Popa, J. R. Herting, F. León, A. Sharma, L. R. McMahon, B. A. Avery, et al. 2021. Pharmacokinetics of eleven kratom alkaloids following an oral dose of either traditional or commercial kratom products in rats. Journal of Natural Products. acs.jnatprod.0c01163
  • Kertesz, S. G., and A. J. Gordon. 2019. A crisis of opioids and the limits of prescription control: United States. Addiction 114 (1):169–80.
  • Khazaeli, A., J. M. Jerry, and M. Vazirian. 2018. Treatment of kratom withdrawal and addiction with buprenorphine. Journal of Addiction Medicine 12 (6):493–95.
  • Kruegel, A. C., and O. Grundmann. 2018. The medicinal chemistry and neuropharmacology of kratom: a preliminary discussion of a promising medicinal plant and analysis of its potential for abuse. Neuropharmacology 134 (May):108–20.
  • Larson, S. A., R. Desai, and F. R. Kates. 2019. Concerns about heroin, cocaine and methamphetamine: Prevalence and correlates of at-risk users from 2015 national survey on drug use and health. Journal of Substance Use 24 (2):206–11.
  • Legislative Analysis and Public Policy Association. 2019, October 30. Regulation of Kratom in America • LAPPA. LAPPA. https://legislativeanalysis.org/regulation-of-kratom-in-america/
  • Leri, F., J. Bruneau, and J. Stewart. 2003. Understanding polydrug use: Review of heroin and cocaine co-use: Understanding polydrug use. Addiction 98 (1):7–22.
  • Likhitsathian, S., W. Jiraporncharoen, A. Aramrattana, C. Angkurawaranon, M. Srisurapanont, K. Thaikla, S. Assanangkornchai, M. Kanato, U. Perngparn, and R. Jarubenja. 2018. Polydrug use among kratom users: Findings from the 2011 Thailand National Household Survey. Journal of Substance Use 23 (4):384–89.
  • Lorvick, J., E. N. Browne, B. H. Lambdin, and M. Comfort. 2018. Polydrug use patterns, risk behavior and unmet healthcare need in a community-based sample of women who use cocaine, heroin or methamphetamine. Addictive Behaviors 85:94–99.
  • Lumley, T. 2004. Analysis of complex survey samples. Journal of Statistical Software 9 (8). http://www.jstatsoft.org/v09/i08/.
  • McWhirter, L., and S. Morris. 2010. A case report of inpatient detoxification after kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence. European Addiction Research 16 (4):229–31.
  • Mudge, E. M., and P. N. Brown. 2017. Determination of mitragynine in Mitragyna speciosa raw materials and finished products by liquid chromatography with UV detection: Single-laboratory validation. Journal of AOAC International 100 (1):18–24.
  • Obeng, S., J. L. Wilkerson, F. León, M. E. Reeves, L. F. Restrepo, L. R. Gamez-Jimenez, A. Patel, A. E. Pennington, V. A. Taylor, N. P. Ho, et al. 2021. Pharmacological comparison of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine: In vitro affinity and efficacy for μ -opioid receptor and opioid-like behavioral effects in rats. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 376 (3):410–27.
  • Palamar, J. J. 2021. Past-year kratom use in the US: Estimates from a nationally representative sample. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 61 (2): 240–245 .
  • Paulus, M. P., and J. L. Stewart. 2020. Neurobiology, clinical presentation, and treatment of methamphetamine use disorder: A review. JAMA Psychiatry 77 (9):959–66.
  • Potvin, S., J. Pelletier, S. Grot, C. Hebert, A. M. Barr, and T. Lecomte. 2018. Cognitive deficits in individuals with methamphetamine use disorder: A meta-analysis. Addictive Behaviors 80:154–60.
  • Powell, D., and R. L. Pacula. 2021. The evolving consequences of oxycontin reformulation on drug overdoses. American Journal of Health Economics 7 (1):41–67.
  • Prevete, E., A. Hupli, S. Marrinan, D. Singh, B. D’Udine, G. Bersani, K. P. Kuypers, J. G. Ramaekers, and O. Corazza. 2021. Exploring the use of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) via the YouTube data tool: A novel netnographic analysis. Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health 1:100007.
  • Prozialeck, W. C., J. K. Jivan, and S. V. Andurkar. 2012. Pharmacology of kratom: An emerging botanical agent with stimulant, analgesic and opioid-like effects. Journal of Osteopathic Medicine 112 (12):792–99.
  • Prozialeck, W. C., J. R. Edwards, P. C. Lamar, B. J. Plotkin, I. M. Sigar, O. Grundmann, and C. A. Veltri. 2020. Evaluation of the mitragynine content, levels of toxic metals and the presence of microbes in kratom products purchased in the western suburbs of Chicago. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17 (15):5512.
  • Reuter, P., J. P. Caulkins, and G. Midgette. March 27 2021. Heroin use cannot be measured adequately with a general population survey. Addiction. add.15458.
  • Saref, A., S. Suraya, D. Singh, O. Grundmann, S. Narayanan, M. T. Swogger, W. C. Prozialeck, E. Boyer, and V. Balasingam. 2020. Self-report data on regular consumption of illicit drugs and HIV risk behaviors after kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.) initiation among illicit drug users in Malaysia. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 52 (2):138–44.
  • Schimmel, J., E. Amioka, K. Rockhill, C. M. Haynes, J. C. Black, R. C. Dart, and J. L. Iwanicki. 2020. Kratom use in the United States: Response to Grundmann et al. Addiction 116 (1):203–04.
  • Schimmel. 2021. Prevalence and description of kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) use in the United States: A Cross‐sectional Study. Addiction 116(1):176–81.
  • Sharma, A., S. H. Kamble, F. León, N. J. Y. Chear, T. I. King, E. C. Berthold, S. Ramanathan, C. R. McCurdy, and B. A. Avery. 2019. Simultaneous quantification of ten key Kratom alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa leaf extracts and commercial products by ultra‐performance liquid chromatography− tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Testing and Analysis 11 (8):1162–71.
  • Sheikh, M., N. Ahmed, H. Gandhi, and O. Chen. 2021. Report of ventricular fibrillation in a 44-year-old man using kratom. BMJ Case Reports CP 14 (3):e237837.
  • Singh, D., C. P. Müller, and B. K. Vicknasingam. 2014. Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 139:132–37.
  • Singh, D., C. P. Müller, B. K. Vicknasingam, and S. M. Mansor. 2015. Social functioning of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) users in Malaysia. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 47 (2):125–31.
  • Singh, D., N. J. Yeou Chear, S. Narayanan, F. Leon, A. Sharma, C. R. McCurdy, B. A. Avery, and V. Balasingam. 2020. Patterns and reasons for Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) use among current and former opioid poly-drug users. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 249:112462.
  • Singh, D., S. Narayanan, B. Vicknasingam, O. Corazza, R. Santacroce, and A. Roman-Urrestarazu. 2017. Changing Trends in the use of Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) in southeast Asia. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental 32 (3):e2582.
  • Singh, D., S. Narayanan, B. Vicknasingam, W. C. Prozialeck, K. E. Smith, O. Corazza, J. Henningfield, and O. Grundmann. 2021. The use of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) among people who co-use heroin and methamphetamine in Malaysia. Journal of Addiction Medicine.
  • Smith, K. E., J. M. Rogers, D. Shriefer, and O. Grundmann. 2021a. Therapeutic benefit with caveats?: Analyzing social media data to understand the complexities of kratom use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 226: 108879 .
  • Smith, K. E., J. M. Rogers, J. C. Strickland, and D. E. Epstein. 2021b. When obscurity becomes a trend: Social media descriptions of tianeptine use and associated atypical drug use. The American Journal on Drug and Alcohol Abuse 47: 455–466 .
  • Smith, K. E., K. E. Dunn, O. Grundmann, A. Garcia-Romeu, J. M. Rogers, M. T. Swogger, and D. H. Epstein. 2021c. Social, psychological, and substance use characteristics of US adults who use kratom: Initial findings from an online, crowdsourced study. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology.
  • Smith, K. E., and T. Lawson. 2017. Prevalence and motivations for kratom use in a sample of substance users enrolled in a residential treatment program. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 180:340–48.
  • Stanciu, C. N., S. A. Gnanasegaram, S. Ahmed, and T. Penders. 2019. Kratom withdrawal: A systematic review with case series. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 51 (1):12–18.
  • Strickland, J. C., J. R. Havens, and W. W. Stoops. 2019. A nationally representative analysis of “twin epidemics”: Rising rates of methamphetamine use among persons who use opioids. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 204:107592.
  • Strickland, J. C., W. W. Stoops, K. E. Dunn, K. E. Smith, and J. R. Havens. 2021. The continued rise of methamphetamine use among people who use heroin in the United States. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 225: 108750 .
  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2020. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP20-07-01-001, NSDUH Series H-55). Accessed February 15, 2021. https://www.samhsa.gov/data.
  • Swogger, M. T., and Z. Walsh. 2018. Kratom use and mental health: A systematic review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 183:134–40.
  • Todd, D. A., J. J. Kellogg, E. D. Wallace, M. Khin, L. Flores-Bocanegra, R. S. Tanna, S. McIntosh, H. A. Raja, T. N. Graf, S. E. Hemby, et al. 2020. Chemical composition and biological effects of kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa): In vitro studies with implications for efficacy and drug interactions. Scientific Reports 10 (1):19158.
  • U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. 2019, November. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa korth)(Street Names: Thang, Kakuam, Thom, Ketum, Biak). https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drug_chem_info/kratom.pdf.
  • Vicknasingam, B., S. Narayanan, G. T. Beng, and S. M. Mansor. 2010. The informal use of Ketum (Mitragyna speciosa) for opioid withdrawal in the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia and implications for drug substitution therapy. International Journal of Drug Policy 21 (4):283–88.
  • Wahbeh, A., T. Nasralah, O. El-Gayar, M. A. Al-Ramahi, and A. El Noshokaty 2021. Adverse health effects of kratom: An analysis of social media data.
  • Wang, L., J. E. Min, E. Krebs, E. Evans, D. Huang, L. Liu, Y.-I. Hser, and B. Nosyk. 2017. Polydrug use and its association with drug treatment outcomes among primary heroin, methamphetamine, and cocaine users. International Journal of Drug Policy 49:32–40.
  • Weiss, S. T., and H. E. Douglas. 2021. Treatment of kratom withdrawal and dependence with buprenorphine/naloxone: A case series and systematic literature review. Journal of Addiction Medicine 15 (2):167–72.
  • Williams, R. S., and D. Nikitin. 2020. The Internet market for Kratom, an opioid alternative and variably legal recreational drug. International Journal of Drug Policy 78:102715.
  • Winkelman, T. N. A., L. K. Admon, L. Jennings, N. D. Shippee, C. R. Richardson, and G. Bart. 2018. Evaluation of amphetamine-related hospitalizations and associated clinical outcomes and costs in the United States. JAMA Network Open 1 (6):e183758–e183758.
  • Yue, K., T. A. Kopajtic, and J. L. Katz. 2018. Abuse liability of mitragynine assessed with a self-administration procedure in rats. Psychopharmacology 235 (10):2823–29.
  • Zhang, M., A. Sharma, F. León, B. Avery, R. Kjelgren, C. R. McCurdy, and B. J. Pearson. 2020. Effects of nutrient fertility on growth and alkaloidal content in Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom). Frontiers in Plant Science 11:2092.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.