Do parental resources reduce the gender gap in math for primary school-going children? Evidence from India

References

• Agrawal, T., and A. Agrawal. 2022. “Beyond Consumption Expenditure: Income Inequality and Its Sources in India.” Progress in Development Studies. doi:10.1177/1464993422110173.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alcott, B., and P. Rose. 2017. “Learning in India’s Primary Schools: How do Disparities Widen Across the Grades?” International Journal of Educational Development 56: 42–51.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aslam, M., and P. Atherton. 2012. The ‘Shadow’ Education Sector in India and Pakistan: The Determinants, Benefits and Equity Effects of Private Tutoring. ESP Working Paper Series No. 38. Education Support Program, Open Society Foundations.
   Google Scholar
• Autor, D., David Figlio, Krzysztof Karbownik, and Jeffrey Roth. 2019. “Family Disadvantage and Gender Gap in Behavioral and Educational Outcomes.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 11 (3): 338–381.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azam, M. 2016. “Private Tutoring: Evidence from India.” Review of Development Economics 20 (4): 739–761.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azam, M., and G. G. Kingdon. 2013. “Are Girls the Fairer Sex in India? Revisiting Intra-Household Allocation of Education Expenditure.” World Development 42: 143–164.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azam, M., G. Kingdon, and K. B. Wu. 2016. “Impact of Private Secondary Schooling on Cognitive Skills: Evidence from India.” Education Economics 24 (5): 465–480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhar, S., S. Lele, and N. D. Rao. 2022. “Beyond Income: Correlates of Conspicuous and Luxury Consumption in India.” Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy 18 (1): 142–157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bharadwaj, P., G. De Giorgi, D. Hansen, and C. Neilson. 2012. Gender Gap in Mathematics: Evidence From Low-and Middle-Income Countries. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Bhorkar, S., and M. Bray. 2018. “The Expansion and Roles of Private Tutoring in India: From Supplementation to Supplantation.” International Journal of Educational Development 62: 148–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breda, T., Elyès Jouini, and N. Clotilde. 2019. Societal Inequalities Amplify Gender Gaps in Math. IZA DP No. 12436. Bonn: Institute of Labor Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Buckley, S. 2016. Gender and Sex Differences in Student Participation, Achievement and Engagement in Mathematics. Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER). Accessed 15 April 2020. https://research.acer.edu.au/learning_processes/18.
   Google Scholar
• Census of India. 2011. Office of the Registrar General of India, Ministry of Home Affairs. New Delhi: Government of India.
   Google Scholar
• Chatterjee, P., and A. Dubey. 2022. “Examining the Birth Weights of Children in India: Impact of Iron-Folic Acid Supplements During Pregnancy.” Indian Journal of Science and Technology 15 (21): 1059–1066.
   Google Scholar
• Choudhuri, P., and S. Desai. 2021. “Lack of Access to Clean Fuel and Piped Water and Children’s Educational Outcomes in Rural India.” World Development 145: 105535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choudhury, P. K. 2020. “Parental Choice for Schools in the Changing Context of the State and Market in India.” In Education and the Public Sphere, edited by G. S. Suresh Babu, 109–129. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Choudhury, P. K., A. Kumar, and A. S. Gill. 2021. “Who All Access Private Coaching in Higher Education and How Much do They Spend? Evidence from India.” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy. doi:10.1080/13547860.2021.1954302.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chudgar, A. 2012. “Variation in Private School Performance: The Importance of Village Context.” Economic and Political Weekly 47 (11): 52–59.
   Google Scholar
• Chudgar, A., and E. Quin. 2012. “Relationship Between Private Schooling and Achievement: Results from Rural and Urban India.” Economics of Education Review 31 (4): 376–390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clelia Cascella, C., J. S. Williams, and M. Pampaka. 2021. “Gender Differences in Mathematics Outcomes at Different Levels of Locality to Inform Policy and Practice.” European Educational Research Journal, 1–27. doi:10.1177/1474904121997211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, D. 2019. “Academic Resilience among Children from Disadvantaged Social Groups in India.” Social Indicators Research 145 (2): 719–739.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das, J., P. Pandey, and T. Zajonc. 2012. “Learning Levels and Gaps in Pakistan: A Comparison with Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.” Economic and Political Weekly 47 (26&27): 228–240.
   Google Scholar
• Das, U., and K. Singhal. 2017. “Gender Differences in Mathematics Performance: Evidence from Rural India.” Available at SSRN 2991511. Accessed 20 December 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Das, U., and K. Singhal. 2022. “Gender Differences in Mathematics Learning in Rural India.” Ideas for India. Accessed 20 March 2022. https://www.ideasforindia.in/topics/human-development/gender-difference-in-mathematics-learning-in-rural-india.html.
   Google Scholar
• Datta, S., and G. G. Kingdon. 2019. Gender Bias in Intra-Household Allocation of Education in India: Has It Fallen over Time? (No. 12671). IZA Discussion Papers.
   Google Scholar
• DeAngelis, C. A. 2019. “Does Private Schooling Affect International Test Scores? Evidence from a Natural Experiment.” School Effectiveness and School Improvement 30 (4): 380–397.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desai, S., A. Dubey, R. Vanneman, and R. Banerji. 2009. “Private Schooling in India: A New Educational Landscape.” India Policy Forum 5 (1): 1–38.
   Google Scholar
• Desai, S., and R. Vanneman. 2015. India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS-II), 2011-12 (Vol. 31). Ann Arbor: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research.
   Google Scholar
• Dhanaraj, S., C. M. Paul, and S. Gade. 2019. “Household Income Dynamics and Investment in Children: Evidence from India.” Education Economics 27 (5): 507–520.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickerson, A., S. McIntosh, and C. Valente. 2015. “Do the Maths: An Analysis of Gender Gap in Mathematics in Africa.” Economics of Education Review 46: 1–22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Tommaso, M. L., A. Maccagnan, and S. Mendolia. 2018. “Gender Gap in Attitudes and Test Scores: A New Construct of the Mathematical Capability.” Available at SSRN 3261702.
   Google Scholar
• Dongre, A., and V. Tewary. 2015. “Impact of Private Tutoring on Learning Levels.” Economic and Political Weekly 50 (41): 71–80.
   Google Scholar
• Dossi, G., D. Figlio, P. Giuliano, and P. Sapienza. 2021. “Born in the Family: Preferences for Boys and Gender Gap in Math.” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 183: 175–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forgasz, H. J. 2015. “Gender and Mathematics in Australia: A Downward Trajectory.” In The Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education, edited by S. Cho, 155–161. Cham: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Fryer, R. G., and S. D. Levitt. 2010. “An Empirical Analysis of Gender Gap in Mathematics.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 2 (2): 210–240.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of India. 2021. National Statistical Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation. New Delhi: Government of India.
   Google Scholar
• Grogger, J., and E. Eide. 1995. “Changes in College Skills and the Rise in the College Wage Premium.” Journal of Human Resources 30 (2): 280–310.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guiso, L., F. Monte, P. Sapienza, and L. Zingales. 2008. “Culture, Gender, and Math.” Science-New York Then Washington 320 (5880): 1164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedges, L. V., and A. Nowell. 1995. “Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals.” Science 269 (5220): 41–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hermann, Z., and M. Kopasz. 2021. “Educational Policies and Gender Gap in Test Scores: A Cross-Country Analysis.” Research Papers in Education 36 (4): 461–482.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hervé, J., S. Mani, J. Behrman, A. Nandi, A. S. Lamkang, and R. Laxminarayan. 2021. Gender Gaps in Cognitive and Noncognitive Skills: Roles of SES and Gender Attitudes IZA DP No. 14132. Bonn: Institute of Labor Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Himaz, R., and H. Aturupane. 2021. “Why are Boys Falling Behind? Explaining Gender Gaps in School Attainment in Sri Lanka.” World Development 142: 105415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain, C. 2019. “Analysing Changes in Gender Difference in Learning in Rural India Over Time.” Journal of Quantitative Economics. doi:10.1007/s40953-019-00167-x.
   Google Scholar
• Jayachandran, S. 2015. “The Roots of Gender Inequality in Developing Countries.” Annual Review of Economics 7: 63–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, G. W., and D. S. Ramchand. 2016. “Closing the Gender and Socioeconomic Gaps in Educational Attainment: A Need to Refocus.” Journal of International Development 28: 953–973.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karaca-Mandic, P., E. C. Norton, and B. Dowd. 2012. “Interaction Terms in Nonlinear Models.” Health Services Research 47 (1pt1): 255–274.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kaul, T. 2018. “Intra-Household Allocation of Educational Expenses: Gender Discrimination and Investing in the Future.” World Development 104: 336–343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingdon, G. 1996. “The Quality and Efficiency of Private and Public Education: A Case-study of Urban India.” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 58 (1): 57–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingdon, G. G. 2007. “The Progress of School Education in India.” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 23 (2): 168–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingdon, G. G. 2020. “The Private Schooling Phenomenon in India: A Review.” The Journal of Development Studies 56 (10): 1795–1817.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, S. M. 2018. “Comparing Private and Government Schools in India: The Devil is in the Maths.” Applied Economics Letters 25 (6): 409–414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, D., and P. K. Choudhury. 2020. “Determinants of Private School Choice in India: All About the Family Backgrounds?” Journal of School Choice 15 (4): 576–602.
   Google Scholar
• Kumar, D., and P. K. Choudhury. 2021a. “Do Private Schools Really Produce More Learning Than Public Schools in India? Accounting for Student’s School Absenteeism and the Time Spent on Homework.” International Journal of Educational Development 83: 102395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, I., and I. K. Chowdhury. 2021b. “Shadow Education in India: Participation and Socioeconomic Determinants.” Journal of South Asian Development, doi:10.1177/09731741211032472.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, M., and N. Naincy. 2020. “Revisiting Gender Gap in Private Household Expenditure on Education in India: An Empirical Analysis.” Paradigm, 1–13. doi:10.1177/0971890720959518.
   Google Scholar
• Kumar, D., D. Padhi, B. Pratap, and A. Aggarwal. 2022. “Corporal Punishment and Praise in Indian Schools: Caste-Based Heterogeneity on Children’s Cognitive Skills.” International Journal of Educational Development 89: 102554.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar, D., B. Pratap, and A. Aggarwal. 2021. “Gender Differences in Students’ Progress from Elementary to Secondary Education in India: Who are Performing Better?” Educational Research for Policy and Practice 21 (2): 217–241.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leder, G. C. 2015. “Gender and Mathematics Education Revisited.” The Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education, 145–170. Cham: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Luo, R., K. Teng, L. Xu, and Y. Zhu. 2021. “A Decomposition of Student Achievement Gap by Gender in China: Evidence from Random Class Assignment.” International Journal of Educational Research 106: 101721.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martina, V. 2021. Gender Gaps in Education: Evidence and Policy Implications. EENEE Analytical Report No. 46. Brussels: European Commission.
   Google Scholar
• McDonough, I. K., P. Roychowdhury, and G. Dhamija. 2021. “Measuring the Dynamics of the Achievement Gap Between Public and Private School Students During Early Life in India.” Journal of Labor Research, doi:10.1007/s12122-020-09307-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MHRD. 2020. National Policy on Education 2020, Ministry of Human Resource for Development. New Delhi: Government of India.
   Google Scholar
• Monk, C., and G. Kingdon. 2010. Health, Nutrition and Academic Achievement: New Evidence from India. Oxford, UK: University of Oxford, Department of Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Muralidharan, K., and K. Sheth. 2016. “Bridging Education Gender Gaps in Developing Countries: The Role of Female Teachers.” Journal of Human Resources 51 (2): 269–297.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murnane, R. J., J. B. Willett, Y. Duhaldeborde, and J. H. Tyler. 2000. “How Important are the Cognitive Skills of Teenagers in Predicting Subsequent Earnings?” Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 19 (4): 547–568.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murnane, R. J., J. B. Willett, and F. Levy. 1995. “The Growing Importance of Cognitive Skills in Wage Determination.” The Review of Economics and Statistics, 77 (2): 251–266.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nam, Y., and J. Huang. 2009. “Equal Opportunity for All? Parental Economic Resources and Children’s Educational Attainment.” Children and Youth Services Review 31 (6): 625–634.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paglin, M., and A. M. Rufolo. 1990. “Heterogeneous Human Capital, Occupational Choice, and Male-Female Earnings Differences.” Journal of Labor Economics 8 (1): 123–144.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pal, S. 2004. “How Much of the Gender Difference in Child School Enrolment Can be Explained? Evidence from Rural India.” Bulletin of Economic Research 56 (2): 133–158.
   Google Scholar
• Pandey, P., and S. Goyal. 2009. “How Do Government and Private Schools Differ?” Economic and Political Weekly 47 (22): 67–76.
   Google Scholar
• Pero, S. A., and A. Bytchkova. 2013. A Bird’s Eye View of Gender Differences in Education in OECD Countries. OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers No. 149, OECD Publishing. Accessed 20 December 2021. doi:10.1787/5k40k706tmtb-en.
   Google Scholar
• Pratham. 2021. Annual Status of Education Report 2021. New Delhi: Pratham.
   Google Scholar
• Rakshit, S., and S. Sahoo. 2021. Biased Teachers and Gender Gap in Learning Outcomes: Evidence from India. IZA DP No. 14305, Institute of Labor Economics.
   Google Scholar
• Rashmi, R., and R. Paul. 2022. “Early Childhood Circumstances and Educational Wellbeing Inequality Among Tribal and Non-Tribal Children in India: Evidence from a Panel Study.” Scientific Reports 12 (1): 1–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reardon, S. F., E. M. Fahle, D. Kalogrides, A. Podolsky, and R. C. Zárate. 2019. “Gender Achievement Gaps in US School Districts.” American Educational Research Journal 56 (6): 2474–2508.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rozana Himaz, R., and H. Aturupane. 2021. “Why are Boys Falling Behind? Explaining Gender Gaps in School Attainment in Sri Lanka.” World Development 142: 105415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RTE Act. 2009. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. New Delhi: Government of India. Accessed 12 September 2022. https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A2009-35_0.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Sahoo, S. 2017. “Intra-Household Gender Disparity in School Choice: Evidence from Private Schooling in India.” The Journal of Development Studies 53 (10): 1–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahoo, S., and S. Klasen. 2021. “Gender Segregation in Education: Evidence from Higher Secondary Stream Choice in India.” Demography 58 (3): 987–1010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma, S., and A. Dubey. 2022. “Like Father, Like Son: Does Migration Experienced During Child Schooling Affect Mobility?” Applied Economics, 54 (45): 5223–5240.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, A. 2013. Size and Resources of the Private School Premium in Test Scores in India. Young Lives Working Paper, 98. Young Lives, UK.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, A. 2015. “Private School Effects in Urban and Rural India: Panel Estimates at Primary and Secondary School Ages.” Journal of Development Economics 113: 16–32.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singhal, K., and U. Das. 2019. “Revisiting the Role of Private Schooling on Children Learning Outcomes: Evidence from Rural India.” South Asia Economic Journal 20 (2): 274–302.
   Google Scholar
• Spears, D. 2012. “Height and Cognitive Achievement among Indian Children.” Economics & Human Biology 10 (2): 210–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilak, J. B. G. 2002. Determinants of Household Expenditure on Education in Rural India. Working Paper Series, No. 88. New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Tilak, Jandhyala B. G., and R. M. Sudarshan. 2001. Private Schooling in Rural India. Working Paper Series No 76. New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• U-DISE. 2020. Flash Statistics 2017-18. New Delhi, India: Unified District Information System for Education. New Delhi: National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration.
   Google Scholar
• UNESCO. 2008. EFA Global Monitoring Report 2009, Overcoming Inequality: Why Governance Matters. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
   Google Scholar
• UNESCO. 2020. Global Education Monitoring Report 2020, Inclusion and Education: All Means All. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
   Google Scholar
• United Nations. 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015. New York, NY: United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• Vidmar, S. I., T. J. Cole, and H. Pan. 2013. “Standardising Anthropometric Measures in Children and Adolescents with Functions for Egen: Update.” The Stata Journal 13 (2): 366–378.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wamalwa, Fredrick M., and J. Burns. 2018. “Private Schools and Student Learning Achievements in Kenya.” Economics of Education Review 66 (C): 114–124.
   Google Scholar
• White, G., M. Ruther, J. R. Kahn, and D. Dong. 2016. “Gender Inequality Amid Educational Expansion in India: An Analysis of Gender Differences in the Attainment of Reading and Mathematics Skills.” Journal of Research in Gender Studies 6 (2): 153–182.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2018. Learning to Realise Education’s Promise, World Development Report 2018. Washington: The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2019. World Development Indicators. Accessed 15 May 2021. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ENR.PRSC.FM.ZS.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2021. The World Bank in Girls Education. Accessed 28 December 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/girls-education/overview#1.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank, UNESCO and UNICEF. 2021. The State of the Global Education Crisis: A Path to Recovery. Washington, DC: The World Bank, UNESCO, and UNICEF. Accessed 10 July 2022. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/416991638768297704/pdf/The-State-of-the-Global-Education-Crisis-A-Path-to-Recovery.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Xu, D., and Q. Li. 2018. “Gender Achievement Gaps Among Chinese Middle School Students and the Role of Teachers’ Gender.” Economics of Education Review 67: 82–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmermann, L. 2012. “Reconsidering Gender Bias in Intrahousehold Allocation in India.” Journal of Development Studies 48 (1): 151–163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar