Cardiac arrhythmias in pregnant women: need for mother and offspring protection

References

• Sanghavi M, Rutherford JD. Cardiovascular physiology of pregnancy. Circulation. 2014;130(12):1003–1008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahendru AA, Everett TR, Wilkinson IB, et al. A longitudinal study of maternal cardiovascular function from preconception to the postpartum period. J Hypertens. 2014;32:849–856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shotan A, Ostrzega E, Mehra A, et al. Incidence of arrhythmias in normal pregnancy and relation to palpitations, dizziness, and syncope. Am J Cardiol. 1997;79(8):1061–1064.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roos-Hesselink JW, Ruys TP, Stein JI, et al. Outcome of pregnancy in patients with structural or ischaemic heart disease: results of a registry of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2013;34(9):657–665.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silversides CK, Grewal J, Mason J, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with heart disease: the CARPREG II study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;71(21):2419–2430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Opotowsky AR, Siddiqi OK, D’Souza B, et al. Maternal cardiovascular events during childbirth among women with congenital heart disease. Heart. 2012;98(2):145–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li JM, Nguyen C, Joglar JA, et al. Frequency and outcome of arrhythmias complicating admission during pregnancy: experience from a high-volume and ethnically-diverse obstetric service. Clin Cardiol. 2008;31(11):538–541.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaidya VR, Arora S, Patel N, et al. Burden of arrhythmia in pregnancy. Circulation. 2017;135(6):619–621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li MM, Sang CH, Jiang CX, et al. Maternal arrhythmia in structurally normal heart: prevalence and feasibility of catheter ablation without fluoroscopy. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2019;42(12):1566–1572.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cordina R, McGuire MA. Maternal cardiac arrhythmias during pregnancy and lactation. Obstet Med. 2010;3(1):8–16.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Knotts RJ, Garan H. Cardiac arrhythmias in pregnancy. Semin Perinatol. 2014;38(5):285–288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gowda RM, Khan IA, Mehta NJ, et al. Cardiac arrhythmias in pregnancy: clinical and therapeutic considerations. Int J Cardiol. 2003;88(2–3):129–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkart TA, Conti JB. Cardiac arrhythmias during pregnancy. Curr Treat Options Cardio Med. 2010;12(5):457–471.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manolis AS, Estes NA 3rd. Supraventricular tachycardia. Mechanisms and therapy. Arch Intern Med. 1987;147(10):1706–1716.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manolis AS, Katsaros C, Cokkinos DV. Diagnosis and treatment of wide-complex tachycardias. Hellenic J Cardiol. 1994;35:258–266.
   Google Scholar
• Manolis AS. Contemporary diagnosis and management of atrial flutter: a continuum of atrial fibrillation and vice versa?. Cardiol Rev. 2017;25(6):289–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yap SC, Drenthen W, Meijboom FJ, et al. Comparison of pregnancy outcomes in women with repaired versus unrepaired atrial septal defect. BJOG. 2009;116(12):1593–1601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canobbio MM, Morris CD, Graham TP, Landzberg MJ. Pregnancy outcomes after atrial repair for transposition of the great arteries. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98(5):668–672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adamson DL, Nelson-Piercy C. Managing palpitations and arrhythmias during pregnancy. Heart. 2007;93(12):1630–1636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brugada J, Katritsis DG, Arbelo E, et al. 2019 ESC guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular tachycardia. The Task Force for the management of patients with supraventricular tachycardia of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J. 2020;41(5):655–720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee SH, Chen SA, Wu TJ, et al. Effects of pregnancy on first onset and symptoms of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol. 1995;76(10):675–678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang SH, Kuo CF, Chou IJ, et al. Outcomes associated with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia during pregnancy. Circulation. 2017;135(6):616–618.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Khatib SM, Arshad A, Balk EM, et al. 2015 ACC/AHA/HRS guideline for the management of adult patients with supraventricular tachycardia: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2016;133(14):e506–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regitz-Zagrosek V, Roos-Hesselink JW, Bauersachs J, et al. 2018 ESC guidelines for the management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy. Eur Heart J. 2018;39(34):3165–3241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elkayam U, Goodwin TM. Adenosine therapy for supraventricular tachycardia during pregnancy. Am J Cardiol. 1995;75(7):521–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaqueti J, Martinez-Hernandez D, Hernandez-Garcia R, et al. Adenosine deaminase in pregnancy serum. Clin Chem. 1990;36(12):2144–2144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mariani PJ. Pharmacotherapy of pregnancy–related SVT. Ann Emerg Med. 1992;21(2):229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widerhorn J, Widerhorn AL, Rahimtoola SH, et al. WPW syndrome during pregnancy: increased incidence of supraventricular arrhythmias. Am Heart J. 1992;123(3):796–798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kounis NG, Zavras GM, Papadaki PJ, et al. Pregnancy-induced increase of supraventricular arrhythmias in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Clin Cardiol. 1995;18(3):137–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsh CA, Manias T, Patient C. Atrial fibrillation in pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2008;138(1):119–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee MS, Chen W, Zhang Z, et al. Atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter in pregnant women-a population-based study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2016;5:e003182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chokesuwattanaskul R, Thongprayoon C, Bathini T, et al. Incidence of atrial fibrillation in pregnancy and clinical significance: a meta-analysis. Adv Med Sci. 2019;64(2):415–422.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirchhof P, Benussi S, Kotecha D, et al. 2016 ESC guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS: the Task Force for the Management of Atrial Fibrillation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) developed with the special contribution of the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA) of the ESC Endorsed by the European Stroke Organisation (ESO). Eur Heart J. 2016;37(38):2893–2962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright JM, Page RL, Field ME. Antiarrhythmic drugs in pregnancy. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2015;13(12):1433–1444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinman CS, Copel JA, Weinstein EM, et al. Treatment of fetal supraventricular tachyarrhythmias. J Clin Ultrasound. 1985;13(4):265–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis G, Currie P. Atrial fibrillation during pregnancy: cardioversion with flecainide. Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 2015;76(12):720–721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strizek B, Berg C, Gottschalk I, et al. High-dose flecainide is the most effective treatment of fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Heart Rhythm. 2016;13(6):1283–1288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern DG, Weinberg CR, Pinnelas R, et al. Use of medication for cardiovascular disease during pregnancy: JACC state-of-the-art review. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73(4):457–476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joglar JA, Page RL. Treatment of cardiac arrhythmias during pregnancy: safety considerations. Drug Saf. 1999;20(1):85–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enderlin EA, Khaled KT, Oke L, et al. Management of tachyarrhythmia during pregnancy. Turk Kardiyol Dern Ars. 2017;45(2):189–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill LM, Malkasian GD Jr. The use of quinidine sulfate throughout pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1979;54:366–368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim SY, Benowitz NL. Poisoning due to class IA antiarrhythmic drugs. Quinidine, procainamide and disopyramide. Drug Saf. 1990;5(6):393–420.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viskin S, Wilde AA, Guevara-Valdivia ME, et al. Quinidine, a life-saving medication for Brugada syndrome, is inaccessible in many countries. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61(23):2383–2387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiladakis JA, Kalogeropoulos A, Patsouras N, et al. Ibutilide added to propafenone for the conversion of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44(4):859–863.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowey PR, VanderLugt JT, Luderer JR. Safety and risk/benefit analysis of ibutilide for acute conversion of atrial fibrillation/flutter. Am J Cardiol. 1996;78(8):46–52.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kockova R, Kocka V, Kiernan T, et al. Ibutilide-induced cardioversion of atrial fibrillation during pregnancy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2007;18(5):545–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkart TA, Kron J, Miles WM, et al. Successful termination of atrial flutter by ibutilide during pregnancy. Pacing Clin Electro. 2007;30(2):283–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manolis AS, Bethanis S, Metaxa S, et al. Use of intravenous vernakalant for atrial fibrillation conversion in the regular ward under only bedside monitoring. Hellenic J Cardiol. 2019;60(1):54–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widerhorn J, Bhandari AK, Bughi S, et al. Fetal and neonatal adverse effects profile of amiodarone treatment during pregnancy. Am Heart J. 1991;122(4):1162–1166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benton RE, Sale M, Flockhart DA, et al. Greater quinidine-induced QTc interval prolongation in women. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2000;67(4):413–418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michelena HI, Powell BD, Brady PA, et al. Gender in atrial fibrillation: ten years later. Gend Med. 2010;7(3):206–217.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein V, Repke JT. Supraventricular tachycardia in pregnancy: cardioversion with verapamil. Obstet Gynecol. 1984;63(3 Suppl):16s–18s.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byerly WG, Hartmann A, Foster DE, et al. Verapamil in the treatment of maternal paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. Ann Emerg Med. 1991;20(5):552–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alabdulrazzaq F, Koren G. Fetal safety of calcium channel blockers. Can Fam Physician. 2012;58(7):746–747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis RL, Eastman D, McPhillips H, et al. Risks of congenital malformations and perinatal events among infants exposed to calcium channel and beta-blockers during pregnancy. Pharmacoepidem Drug Safe. 2011;20(2):138–145.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silversides CK, Harris L, Haberer K, et al. Recurrence rates of arrhythmias during pregnancy in women with previous tachyarrhythmia and impact on fetal and neonatal outcomes. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97(8):1206–1212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lydakis C, Lip GY, Beevers M, et al. Atenolol and fetal growth in pregnancies complicated by hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 1999;12(6):541–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yakoob MY, Bateman BT, Ho E, et al. The risk of congenital malformations associated with exposure to beta-blockers early in pregnancy: a meta-analysis. Hypertension. 2013;62(2):375–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pruyn SC, Phelan JP, Buchanan GC. Long-term propranolol therapy in pregnancy: maternal and fetal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1979;135(4):485–489.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan L, Ng A, Chen W, et al. Beta-blocker subtypes and risk of low birth weight in newborns. J Clin Hypertens. 2018;20(11):1603–1609.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotmensch HH, Elkayam U, Frishman W. Antiarrhythmic drug therapy during pregnancy. Ann Intern Med. 1983;98(4):487–497.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manolis AS. Ablation of atrial fibrillation: single-shot techniques poised to dominate rhythm control strategies/the future is here. J Thorac Dis. 2017;9(3):E313–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheres LJJ, Bistervels IM, Middeldorp S. Everything the clinician needs to know about evidence-based anticoagulation in pregnancy. Blood Rev. 2019;33:82–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vitale N, De Feo M, De Santo LS, et al. Dose-dependent fetal complications of warfarin in pregnant women with mechanical heart valves. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33(6):1637–1641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hou JW. Fetal warfarin syndrome. Chang Gung Med J. 2004;27(9):691–695.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Romualdi E, Dentali F, Rancan E, et al. Anticoagulant therapy for venous thromboembolism during pregnancy: a systematic review and a meta-analysis of the literature. J Thromb Haemost. 2013;11(2):270–281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLintock C. Anticoagulant choices in pregnant women with mechanical heart valves: balancing maternal and fetal risks–the difference the dose makes. Thromb Res. 2013;131 (Suppl 1):S8–S10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pacheco LD, Saade GR, Costantine MM, et al. Reconsidering the switch from low-molecular-weight heparin to unfractionated heparin during pregnancy. Amer J Perinatol. 2013;31(08):655–658.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Casele HL. The use of unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparins in pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2006;49(4):895–905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu Z, Fan J, Luo X, et al. Anticoagulation regimens during pregnancy in patients with mechanical heart valves: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Cardiol. 2016;32(10):1248.e1–48.e9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka H, Tanaka K, Kamiya C, et al. Analysis of anticoagulant therapy by unfractionated heparin during pregnancy after mechanical valve replacement. Circ J. 2014;78(4):878–881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen H, Arachchillage DR, Middeldorp S, et al. Management of direct oral anticoagulants in women of childbearing potential: guidance from the SSC of the ISTH. J Thromb Haemost. 2016;14(8):1673–1676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoeltzenbein M, Beck E, Meixner K, et al. Pregnancy outcome after exposure to the novel oral anticoagulant rivaroxaban in women at suspected risk for thromboembolic events: a case series from the German Embryotox Pharmacovigilance Centre. Clin Res Cardiol. 2016;105(2):117–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beyer-Westendorf J, Michalski F, Tittl L, et al. Pregnancy outcome in patients exposed to direct oral anticoagulants - and the challenge of event reporting. Thromb Haemost. 2016;116(10):651–658.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cuneo BF, Kaizer AM, Ann Clur S, et al. Mothers with long QT syndrome are at increased risk for fetal death: findings from a multicenter international study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2020;222(3):263.e1–263.e11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishibashi K, Aiba T, Kamiya C, et al. Arrhythmia risk and beta-blocker therapy in pregnant women with long QT syndrome. Heart. 2017;103(17):1374–1379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garg L, Garg J, Krishnamoorthy P, et al. Influence of pregnancy in patients with congenital long QT syndrome. Cardiol Rev. 2017;25(4):197–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss AJ, Zareba W, Schwarz KQ, et al. Ranolazine shortens repolarization in patients with sustained inward sodium current due to type-3 long-QT syndrome. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008;19(12):1289–1293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimizu W, Antzelevitch C. Sodium channel block with mexiletine is effective in reducing dispersion of repolarization and preventing torsade des pointes in LQT2 and LQT3 models of the long-QT syndrome. Circulation. 1997;96(6):2038–2047.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priori SG, Wilde AA, Horie M, et al. HRS/EHRA/APHRS expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of patients with inherited primary arrhythmia syndromes: document endorsed by HRS, EHRA, and APHRS in May 2013 and by ACCF, AHA, PACES, and AEPC in June 2013. Heart Rhythm. 2013;10(12):1932–1963.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyoshi T, Kamiya CA, Katsuragi S, et al. Safety and efficacy of implantable cardioverter-defibrillator during pregnancy and after delivery. Circ J. 2013;77(5):1166–1170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharif-Kazemi MB, Emkanjoo Z, Tavoosi A, et al. Electrical storm in Brugada syndrome during pregnancy. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2011;34(2):e18–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baltogiannis GG, Lysitsas DN, di Giovanni G, et al. CPVT: arrhythmogenesis, therapeutic management, and future perspectives. A brief review of the literature. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2019;6:92
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieve KV, van der Werf C, Wilde AA. Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. Circ J. 2016;80(6):1285–1291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung CC, Lieve KV, Roston TM, et al. Pregnancy in catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2019;5(3):387–394.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tong C, Kiess M, Deyell MW, et al. Impact of frequent premature ventricular contractions on pregnancy outcomes. Heart. 2018;104(16):1370–1375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodsky M, Doria R, Allen B, et al. New-onset ventricular tachycardia during pregnancy. Am Heart J. 1992;123(4):933–941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enriquez AD, Economy KE, Tedrow UB. Contemporary management of arrhythmias during pregnancy. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2014;7(5):961–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cleary-Goldman J, Salva CR, Infeld JI, et al. Verapamil-sensitive idiopathic left ventricular tachycardia in pregnancy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2003;14(2):132–135.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chandra NC, Gates EA, Thamer M. Conservative treatment of paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia during pregnancy. Clin Cardiol. 1991;14(4):347–350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ertekin E, van Hagen IM, Salam AM, et al. Ventricular tachyarrhythmia during pregnancy in women with heart disease: data from the ROPAC, a registry from the European Society of Cardiology. Int J Cardiol. 2016;220:131–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauce B, Daliento L, Frigo G, et al. Pregnancy in women with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2006;127(2):186–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Troiano NH. Cardiomyopathy during pregnancy. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs. 2015;29(3):222–228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goland S, van Hagen IM, Elbaz-Greener G, et al. Pregnancy in women with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: data from the European Society of Cardiology initiated Registry of Pregnancy and Cardiac disease (ROPAC). Eur Heart J. 2017;38(35):2683–2690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaufelberger M. Cardiomyopathy and pregnancy. Heart. 2019;105(20):1543–1551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grewal J, Siu SC, Ross HJ, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women with dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;55(1):45–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliwa K, Mebazaa A, Hilfiker-Kleiner D, et al. Clinical characteristics of patients from the worldwide registry on peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM): EUR Observational Research Programme in conjunction with the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology Study Group on PPCM. Eur J Heart Fail. 2017;19(9):1131–1141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honigberg MC, Givertz MM. Peripartum cardiomyopathy. BMJ. 2019;364:k5287
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mallikethi-Reddy S, Akintoye E, Trehan N, et al. Burden of arrhythmias in peripartum cardiomyopathy: analysis of 9841 hospitalizations. Int J Cardiol. 2017;235:114–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodes AR, Tichnell C, Te Riele AS, et al. Pregnancy course and outcomes in women with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Heart. 2016;102(4):303–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gandjbakhch E, Varlet E, Duthoit G, et al. Pregnancy and newborn outcomes in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia. Int J Cardiol. 2018;258:172–178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu L, Liang E, Fan S, et al. Effect of pregnancy in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2020;125(4):613–617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elkayam U, Jalnapurkar S, Barakkat MN, et al. Pregnancy-associated acute myocardial infarction: a review of contemporary experience in 150 cases between 2006 and 2011. Circulation. 2014;129(16):1695–1702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ismail S, Wong C, Rajan P, et al. ST-elevation acute myocardial infarction in pregnancy: 2016 update. Clin Cardiol. 2017;40(6):399–406.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson P, Narous M, Firoz T, et al. Incidence of myocardial infarction in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies. Eur Heart J Qual Care Clin Outcomes. 2017;3(3):198–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manolis AS, Manolis AA, Manolis TA, et al. Acute coronary syndromes in patients with angiographically normal or near normal (non-obstructive) coronary arteries. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2018;28(8):541–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siu SC, Sermer M, Colman JM, et al. Prospective multicenter study of pregnancy outcomes in women with heart disease. Circulation. 2001;104(5):515–521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tateno S, Niwa K, Nakazawa M, et al. Arrhythmia and conduction disturbances in patients with congenital heart disease during pregnancy: multicenter study. Circ J. 2003;67:992–997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niwa K, Tateno S, Akagi T, et al. Arrhythmia and reduced heart rate variability during pregnancy in women with congenital heart disease and previous reparative surgery. Int J Cardiol. 2007;122(2):143–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priori SG, Blomstrom-Lundqvist C, Mazzanti A, et al. 2015 ESC guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: the Task Force for the Management of Patients with Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC. Eur Heart J. 2015;36(41):2793–2867. ).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Echt DS, Liebson PR, Mitchell LB, et al. Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide, or placebo. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. N Engl J Med. 1991;324(12):781–788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Al-Khatib SM, Stevenson WG, Ackerman MJ, et al. 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;72:e91–e220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szumowski L, Szufladowicz E, Orczykowski M, et al. Ablation of severe drug-resistant tachyarrhythmia during pregnancy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2010;21:877–882.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stec S, Krynski T, Baran J, et al. “Rescue” ablation of electrical storm in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy in pregnancy. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2013;13(1):58.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Driver K, Chisholm CA, Darby AE, et al. Catheter ablation of arrhythmia during pregnancy. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2015;26(6):698–702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manolis AS, Linzer M, Salem D, et al. Syncope: current diagnostic evaluation and management. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112(11):850–863.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatur S, Islam S, Moore LE, et al. Incidence of syncope during pregnancy: temporal trends and outcomes. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8:e011608.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan HL, Lie KI. Treatment of tachyarrhythmias during pregnancy and lactation. Eur Heart J. 2001;22(6):458–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brucker MC, King TL. The 2015 US Food and Drug Administration pregnancy and lactation labeling rule. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2017;62(3):308–316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow T, Galvin J, McGovern B. Antiarrhythmic drug therapy in pregnancy and lactation. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82(4):58i–62i.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Page RL. Treatment of arrhythmias during pregnancy. Am Heart J. 1995;130(4):871–876.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shnider SM, Way EL. Plasma levels of lidocaine (Xylocaine) in mother and newborn following obstetrical conduction anesthesia: clinical applications. Anesthesiology. 1968;29(5):951–958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lownes HE, Ives TJ. Mexiletine use in pregnancy and lactation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;157(2):446–447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauveau S, Le Vavasseur O, Morel E, et al. Flecainide is a safe and effective treatment for pre-excited atrial fibrillation rapidly conducted to the ventricle in pregnant women: a case series. Eur Heart J Case Rep. 2019;3(2):ytz066.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bateman BT, Heide-Jorgensen U, Einarsdottir K, et al. beta-Blocker use in pregnancy and the risk for congenital malformations: an international cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169(10):665–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan L, Ng A, Chen W, et al. beta-Blocker exposure in pregnancy and risk of fetal cardiac anomalies. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(6):885–887.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergman JEH, Lutke LR, Gans ROB, et al. beta-Blocker use in pregnancy and risk of specific congenital anomalies: a European case-malformed control study. Drug Saf. 2018;41(4):415–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meidahl Petersen K, Jimenez-Solem E, Andersen JT, et al. beta-Blocker treatment during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a nationwide population-based cohort study. BMJ Open. 2012;2(4):e001185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ersboll AS, Hedegaard M, Sondergaard L, et al. Treatment with oral beta-blockers during pregnancy complicated by maternal heart disease increases the risk of fetal growth restriction. BJOG: Int J Obstet Gy. 2014;121(5):618–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryu RJ, Eyal S, Easterling TR, et al. Pharmacokinetics of metoprolol during pregnancy and lactation. J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;56(5):581–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Högstedt S, Rane A. Plasma concentration-effect relationship of metoprolol during and after pregnancy. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1993;44(3):243–246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lip GY, Beevers M, Churchill D, et al. Effect of atenolol on birth weight. Am J Cardiol. 1997;79(10):1436–1438.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oudijk MA, Michon MM, Kleinman CS, et al. Sotalol in the treatment of fetal dysrhythmias. Circulation. 2000;101(23):2721–2726.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pezard PG, Boussion F, Sentilhes L, et al. Fetal tachycardia: a role for amiodarone as first- or second-line therapy? Arch Cardiovasc Dis. 2008;101(10):619–627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strasburger JF, Cuneo BF, Michon MM, et al. Amiodarone therapy for drug-refractory fetal tachycardia. Circulation. 2004;109(3):375–379.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, Braverman LE, et al. Effects of amiodarone administration during pregnancy on neonatal thyroid function and subsequent neurodevelopment. J Endocrinol Invest. 2001;24(2):116–130.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lomenick JP, Jackson WA, Backeljauw PF. Amiodarone-induced neonatal hypothyroidism: a unique form of transient early-onset hypothyroidism. J Perinatol. 2004;24(6):397–399.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Magee LA, Downar E, Sermer M, et al. Pregnancy outcome after gestational exposure to amiodarone in Canada. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;172(4):1307–1311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ovadia M, Brito M, Hoyer GL, et al. Human experience with amiodarone in the embryonic period. Am J Cardiol. 1994;73(4):316–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manolis AS, Tordjman T, Mack KD, et al. Atypical pulmonary and neurologic complications of amiodarone in the same patient. Report of a case and review of the literature. Arch Intern Med. 1987;147(10):1805–1809.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bravo-Valenzuela NJ, Rocha LA, Machado Nardozza LM, et al. Fetal cardiac arrhythmias: current evidence. Ann Pediatr Card. 2018;11(2):148–163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuan SM. Fetal arrhythmias: diagnosis and treatment. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2019:1–8. DOI:10.1080/14767058.2018.1555804
   Google Scholar
• Manolis AA, Manolis TA, Melita H, et al. Congenital heart block: pace earlier (childhood) than later (adulthood). Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2019. DOI:10.1016/j.tcm.2019.06.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hornberger LK, Sahn DJ. Rhythm abnormalities of the fetus. Heart. 2007;93(10):1294–1300.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malhame I, Gandhi C, Tarabulsi G, et al. Maternal monitoring and safety considerations during antiarrhythmic treatment for fetal supraventricular tachycardia. Obstet Med. 2019;12(2):66–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donofrio MT, Moon-Grady AJ, Hornberger LK, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of fetal cardiac disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2014;129(21):2183–2242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinman CS, Nehgme RA. Cardiac arrhythmias in the human fetus. Pediatr Cardiol. 2004;25(3):234–251.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson LL. Fetal supraventricular tachycardias: diagnosis and management. Semin Perinatol. 2000;24(5):360–372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naheed ZJ, Strasburger JF, Deal BJ, et al. Fetal tachycardia: mechanisms and predictors of hydrops fetalis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;27(7):1736–1740.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill GD, Kovach JR, Saudek DE, et al. Transplacental treatment of fetal tachycardia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prenat Diagn. 2017;37(11):1076–1083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alsaied T, Baskar S, Fares M, et al. First-line antiarrhythmic transplacental treatment for fetal tachyarrhythmia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2017;6(12):e007164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strasburger JF. Prenatal diagnosis of fetal arrhythmias. Clin Perinatol. 2005;32(4):891–912. viii.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saileela R, Sachdeva S, Saggu DK, et al. Ventricular tachycardia in a fetus: benign course of a malignant arrhythmia. J Obstet Gynecol India. 2019;69(4):383–386.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuneo BF, Ovadia M, Strasburger JF, et al. Prenatal diagnosis and in utero treatment of torsades de pointes associated with congenital long QT syndrome. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91(11):1395–1398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosono T, Shinto M, Chiba Y, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of fetal complete atrioventricular block with QT prolongation and alternating ventricular pacemakers using multi-channel magnetocardiography and current-arrow maps. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2002;17(3):173–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuneo BF, Strasburger JF, Wakai RT. The natural history of fetal long QT syndrome. J Electrocardiol. 2016;49(6):807–813.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake CY, Del Nido PJ, Alexander ME, et al. Cardiac tumors and associated arrhythmias in pediatric patients, with observations on surgical therapy for ventricular tachycardia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58(18):1903–1909.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ueda K, Maeno Y, Miyoshi T, et al. The impact of intrauterine treatment on fetal tachycardia: a nationwide survey in Japan. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2018;31(19):2605–2610.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manolis AS, Wang PJ, Estes NA 3rd. Radiofrequency catheter ablation for cardiac tachyarrhythmias. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121(6):452–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koźluk E, Piątkowska A, Kiliszek M, et al. Catheter ablation of cardiac arrhythmias in pregnancy without fluoroscopy: a case control retrospective study. Adv Clin Exp Med. 2017;26(1):129–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manolis AS, Manolis TA, Metaxa S. Pregnancy and cardiovascular disease. Rhythmos. 2013;8:45–56.
   Google Scholar
• van Hagen IM, Boersma E, Johnson MR, et al. Global cardiac risk assessment in the Registry of Pregnancy and Cardiac disease: results of a registry from the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail. 2016;18(5):523–533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roston TM, van der Werf C, Cheung CC, et al. Caring for the pregnant woman with an inherited arrhythmia syndrome. Heart Rhythm. 2020;17(2):341–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar