References
- Alexander , Deborah and Andersen , Kristi . 1993 . Gender as a Factor in the Attribution of Leadership Traits . Political Research Quarterly , 46 ( 3 ) : 527 – 546 .
- Allgeier , A. R. , Byrne , Donn , Brooks , Barbara and Revnes , Diane . 1979 . The Waffle Phenomenon: Negative Attitudes of Those Who Shift Attitudinally . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 9 ( 2 ) : 170 – 182 .
- Alvarez , R. Michael . 1997 . Information and Elections , Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press .
- Arkin , William and Dobrofsky , Lynne R. 1978 . Military Socialization and Masculinity . Journal of Social Issues , 34 ( 1 ) : 151 – 168 .
- Bernhardt , M. Daniel and Ingberman , Daniel . 1985 . Candidate Reputations and the Incumbency Effect . Journal of Public Economics , 27 ( 1 ) : 47 – 67 .
- Carlson , James M. and Dolan , Kathleen . 1985 . The Waffle Phenomenon and Candidates’ Image . Psychological Reports , 57 : 795 – 798 .
- Carroll , Susan J. and Richard , L. Fox . 2006 . Gender and Elections: Shaping the Future of American Politics , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Collins , Gail . June 10 2008 . “ Obama's Flip-Flopping ” . In The New York Times June 10 ,
- Croco , Sarah E. 2011 . The Flip-Side of Flip-Flopping Leader Inconsistency, Citizen Preferences and the War in Iraq , Working Paper .
- Dolan , Kathleen . 2011 . Do Women and Men Know Different Things? Measuring Gender Differences in Political Knowledge . The Journal of Politics , 73 ( 1 ) : 97 – 107 .
- Dolan , Julie , Deckman , Melissa and Swers , Michele L. 2007 . Women and Politics: Paths to Power and Political Influence , Upper Saddle River , NJ : Pearson Prentice Hall .
- Duerst-Lahti , Georgia . 2006 . “ Presidential Elections: Gendered Space and the Case of 2004 ” . In Gender and Elections: Shaping the Future of American Politics, edited by , Edited by: Carroll , Sue and Fox , Richard . New York : Cambridge University Press .
- Enelow , James M. and Hinich , Melvin J. 1984 . The Spatial Theory of Voting: an Introduction , New York : Cambridge University Press .
- Enelow , James M. and Munger , Michael C. 1993 . The Elements of Candidate Reputation: The Effect of Record and Credibility on Optimal Spatial Location . Public Choice , 77 : 757 – 772 .
- Fearon , James D. 1994 . Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes . The American Political Science Review , 88 ( 3 ) : 577 – 592 .
- Feitz , Lindsey and Nagel , Joanne . 2008 . “ The Militarization of Gender and Sexuality in the Iraq War ” . In Women in the Military and in Armed Conflict, edited by , Edited by: Carreiras , C.H. and Kümmel , G. Wiesbaden , , Germany : VS Verlag .
- Felmlee , Diane H. 1999 . Social Norms in Same- and Cross-Gender Friendships . Social Psychology Quarterly , 62 ( 1 ) : 53 – 67 .
- Fox , Richard L. 1997 . Gender Dynamics in Congressional Elections , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage Publications .
- Fulton , Sarah A. 2012 . Running Backwards and in High Heels: The Gendered Quality Gap and Incumbent Electoral Success . Political Research Quarterly , 65 ( 2 ) : 303 – 314 .
- Gartner , Scott S. 2008a . Secondary Casualty Information: Casualty Uncertainty, Female Casualties and Wartime Support . Conflict Management and Peace Science , 25 ( 2 ) : 98 – 111 .
- Gartner , Scott S. 2008b . The Multiple Effects of Casualties on Public Support for War: An Experimental Approach . The American Political Science Review , 102 ( 1 ) : 95 – 106 .
- Gartner , Scott S. and Segura , Gary M. 1997 . Appearances Can Be Deceptive: Self-Selection, Social Group Identification, and Political Mobilization . Rationality and Society , 9 ( 2 ) : 131 – 161 .
- Gartner , Scott S. , Segura , Gary M. and Barratt , Bethany . 2004 . War Casualties, Policy Positions, and the Fate of Legislators . Political Research Quarterly , 57 ( 3 ) : 467 – 477 .
- Goldstein , Joshua S. 2001 . War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Gordon, J.D. (2011, April 4) Obama Finally Flip-Flops on Military Commissions and 9/11 Detainees. Fox News.com. http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2011/04/04/obama-finally-flip-flops-military-commissions-11-detainees/ (http://www.foxnews.com/opinion/2011/04/04/obama-finally-flip-flops-military-commissions-11-detainees/)
- Heider , Fritz . 1958 . The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations , New York : Wiley .
- Huddy , Leonie . 1994 . “ The Political Significance of Gender Stereotypes ” . In Research in Micropolitics: New Directions in Political Psychology , Edited by: Delli-Carpini , Michael X. , Huddy , Leonie and Shapiro , Robert Y. Volume 4 , Greenwich , CT : JAI Press .
- Huddy , Leonie and Terkildsen , Nayda . 1993 . The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes for Women Candidates at Different Levels and Types of Office . Political Research Quarterly , 46 ( 3 ) : 503 – 525 .
- Hummel , Patrick . 2010 . Flip-Flopping from Primaries to General Elections . Journal of Public Economics , 94 ( 11–12 ) : 1020 – 1027 .
- Jacobson , Gary C. 2011 . A Divider, Not a Uniter: George W. Bush and the American People , 2nd , New York : Longman .
- Kahn , Kim F. 1994 . Does Gender Make a Difference? An Experimental Examination of Sex Stereotypes and Press Patterns in Statewide Campaigns . The American Journal of Political Science , 38 ( 1 ) : 162 – 195 .
- Kahn , Kim F. 1996 . The Political Consequences of Being a Woman: How Stereotypes Influence the Conduct and Consequences of Political Campaigns , New York : Columbia University Press .
- Kaid , Lynda L. , Myers , Sandra L. , Pipps , Val and Hunter , Jan . 1984 . Sex Role Perceptions and Televised Political Advertising: Comparing Male and Female Candidates . Women and Politics , 4 ( 4 ) : 41 – 53 .
- Karol , David . 2009 . Position Change in American Politics: Coalition Management , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Keller, Bill. (2011, November 13) How Romney Could Win. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/14/opinion/keller-how-romney-could-win.html?pagewanted=all (http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/14/opinion/keller-how-romney-could-win.html?pagewanted=all)
- Kinder , Donald R. , Peters , Mark D. , Abelson , Robert P. and Fiske , Susan T. 1980 . Presidential Prototypes . Political Behavior , 2 ( 4 ) : 315 – 337 .
- Koch , Jeffrey W. 1999 . Candidate Gender and Assessment of Senate Candidates . Social Science Quarterly , 80 ( 1 ) : 48 – 96 .
- Koch , Michael T. and Fulton , Sarah A. 2011 . In the Defense of Women: Gender, Representation and National Security Policy . Journal of Politics , 73 ( 1 ) : 1 – 16 .
- Levendusky , Matthew S. and Horowitz , Michael C. 2012 . When Backing Down is the Right Decision: Partisanship, New Information and Audience Costs . Journal of Politics , 74 ( 2 ) : 323 – 338 .
- Luo , Michael . June 15 2007 . “ Romney Faces Another ‘Flip-Flop’ Question: Has He Changed on Stem Cells? ” . In The New York Times June 15 ,
- Martin , Lisa L. 1993 . Credibility, Costs and Institutions: Cooperation on Economic Sanctions . World Politics , 45 ( 3 ) : 406 – 432 .
- McCaul , Kevin D. , Ployhart , Rob E. , Hinsz , Verlin B. and McCaul , Harriette S. 1995 . Appraisals of a Consistent Versus a Similar Politician: Voter Preferences and Intuitive Judgments . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 ( 2 ) : 292 – 299 .
- McGraw , Kathleen M. , Fischle , Mark , Stenner , Karen and Lodge , Milton . 1996 . What's in a Word? Bias in Trait Descriptions of Political Leaders . Political Behavior , 18 ( 3 ) : 263 – 287 .
- Mintz , Alex , Redd , Steven B. and Vedlitz , Arnold . 2006 . Can We Generalize from Student Experiments to the Real World in Political Science, Military Affairs, and International Relations? . The Journal of Conflict Resolution , 50 ( 5 ) : 757 – 776 .
- New York Times Editorial Board . December 7 2007 . “ Bush's Alternative Energy Flip-Flop ” . In The New York Times December 7 ,
- Page , Benjamin I. 1978 . Choices and Echoes in Presidential Elections , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
- Poole , Keith T. 2007 . Changing Minds? Not in Congress! . Public Choice , 131 ( 3–4 ) : 435 – 451 .
- Poole , Keith T. and Rosenthal , Howard . 1997 . Ideology and Congress , Piscataway , NJ : Transaction Press .
- Regan , Patrick M. 1994 . Organizing Societies for War: The Process and Consequences of Societal Mobilization , Westport , CT : Praeger Press .
- Roberts, Joel. (2009, February 11) Kerry's Top Ten Flip-Flops. CBSNews.com. http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-250_162-646435.html (http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-250_162-646435.html)
- Rosenberg , Seymour , Nelson , Carnot and Vivekananthan , P. S. 1968 . A Multidimensional Approach to the Structure of Personality Impressions . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 9 ( 4 ) : 283 – 294 .
- Schultz , Kenneth A. 2001 . Democracy and Coercive Diplomacy , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
- Segura , Gary M. and Alves Rodrigues , Helena . 2006 . Comparative Ethnic Politics in the United States: Beyond Black and White . Annual Review of Political Science , 9 : 375 – 395 .
- Sigelman , Lee and Sigelman , Carol K. 1986 . Shattered Expectations: Public Responses to ‘Out of Character’ Presidential Actions . Political Behavior , 8 ( 3 ) : 262 – 286 .
- Smith , Alastair . 1998 . International Crises and Domestic Politics . The American Political Science Review , 92 ( 3 ) : 623 – 638 .
- Swers , Michele . 2011 . Building a Reputation on National Security: The Impact of Stereotypes Related to Gender and Military Experience . Legislative Studies Quarterly , 32 ( 4 ) : 559 – 595 .
- Tavits , Margit . 2007 . Principle vs. Pragmatism: Policy Shifts and Political Competition . The American Journal of Political Science , 51 ( 1 ) : 151 – 165 .
- Tomz , Michael . 2007 . Domestic Audience Costs in International Relations: An Experimental Approach . International Organization , 61 ( 4 ) : 821 – 840 .
- Tomz , Michael and Robert , P. Van Houweling . 2009 . The Electoral Implications for Candidate Ambiguity . The American Political Science Review , 103 ( 1 ) : 83 – 98 .
- Tomz , Michael and Robert , Van Houweling . 2010 . Candidate Repositioning , Working Paper .
- Weeks , Jessica L. 2008 . Autocratic Audience Costs: Regime Type and Signaling Resolve . International Organization , 62 ( 1 ) : 35 – 64 .