Competing authorities and norms of restraint: governing community-embedded armed groups in South Sudan

References

• De Waal, Alex and Pendle, Naomi. 2014. “When Kleptocracy Becomes Insolvent: Brute Causes of the Civil War in South Sudan.” African Affairs 113 (452): 347–69. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adu028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Waal, Alex. 2015. The Real Politics of the Horn of Africa: Money, War and the Business of Power. Oxford: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• De Waal, Alex, and Naomi Pendle. 2019. “Decentralisation and the Logic of the Political Marketplace in South.” In The Struggle for South Sudan: Challenges of Security and State Formation, edited by Biong Deng Kuol and Sarah Logan, London:I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.172–194.
   Google Scholar
• Amnesty International. 2014. Nowhere Is Safe: Civilians under Attack in South Sudan, London: Amnesty International.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, Perry. 2017. The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci. Brooklyn: Verso.
   Google Scholar
• Bayart, Jean-Francois, Stephen Ellis, and Beatrice Hibou. 1999. The Criminalization of the State in Africa. Oxford: James Currey.
   Google Scholar
• BBC. 2013. “South Sudan: Thousands of Pro-rebel Youths ‘March on Bor’.” December 28, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Behrend, Heike, and Ute Luig, eds. 1999. Spirit Possession, Modernity & Power in Africa. Oxford: James Currey Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Boswell, Alan. 2019. Insecure Power and Violence: The Rise and Fall of Paul Malong and the Mathiang Anyoor. HSBA Briefing Paper. http://www.smallarmssurveysudan.org/fileadmin/docs/briefing-papers/HSBA-BP-Mathiang-Anyoor.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Bourdieu, Pierre, and Loïc  Wacquant. 1992. An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago: Chicago University Press
   Google Scholar
• Brownmiller, Susan. 1975. Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape. New York, Cambridge, UK: Simon and Schuster, Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Checchi, Francesco, Adrienne Testa, Abdihamid Warsame, Le Quach, and Rachel Burns. 2018. Estimates of Crisis-attributable Mortality in South Sudan, December 2013-April 2018. London: London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.
   Google Scholar
• Clapham, Christopher. 1996. Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Collier, Paul, and Anke Hoeffler. 2004. “Greed and Grievance in Civil War.” Oxford Economic Papers 56 (4): 563–95. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpf064.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cormack, Zoe. 2014. “The Making and Remaking of Gogrial: Landscape, History and Memory in South Sudan.” PhD diss., University of Durham.
   Google Scholar
• Cormack, Zoe. 2016. “Borders are Galaxies: Interesting Contestations over Local Administrative Boundaries in South Sudan.” Africa 86 (3): 504–27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0001972016000358.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Craze, Joshua. 2019. Displaced and Immiserated: The Shiluk of Upper Nile in South Sudan’s Civil War, 2014-19. Geneva: Small Arms Survey.
   Google Scholar
• Deng, Francis M. 2010. Customary Law in the Modern World: The Crossfire of Sudan’s War of Identities. Abingdon: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Evans-Pritchard, E.E. 1940. The Nuer. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fearon, James D., and David D. Laitin. 2003. “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97 (1): 75–90. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055403000534.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Förster, Till. 2010. “Maintenant, on Sait Qui Est Qui: Statehood and Political Reconfiguration in Northern Côte d’Ivoire.” Development and Change 41 (4): 699–722. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01659.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graeber, David. 2013. “Culture as Creative Refusal.” Cambridge Anthropology 31 (2): 1–19. doi:https://doi.org/10.3167/ca.2013.310201.
   Google Scholar
• Gramsci, Antonio. 1994. “Hegemony, Intellectuals and the State.” In Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A Reader, edited by John Storey, 215–21. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
   Google Scholar
• Hoffmann, Kasper. 2015. “Myths Set in Motion: The Moral Economy of Mai Mai Governance.” In Rebel Governance in Civil War, edited by Ana Arjona, Nelson Kasfir, and Zachariah Mampilly, 158–79. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Human Rights Watch. 2015. They Burned It All: Destruction of Villages, Killings, and Sexual Violence in Unity State, South Sudan, New York: Human Rights Watch.
   Google Scholar
• Humphreys, M., and J. Weinstein. 2006. “Handling and Manhandling Civilians in Civil War.” American Political Science Review 100 (3): 429–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055406062289.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, Sharon E. 1996. Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, Sharon E. 2000. “Nuer Ethnicity Militarized.” Anthropology Today 16 (3): 6–13. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8322.00024.
   Google Scholar
• Jok and Hutchinson, Sharon E. 2001. “A Curse from God? Political and Religious Dimensions of the Post-1991 Rise of Ethnic Violence in South Sudan.” Journal of Modern African Studies 39 (2): 307–31. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X01003639.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchinson, Sharon E., and Naomi R. Pendle. 2015. “Violence, Legitimacy, and Prophecy: Nuer Struggles with Uncertainty in South Sudan.” American Ethnologist 42 (3): 415–30. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12138.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibreck, Rachel, and Naomi R. Pendle. 2016. “Customary Protection? Chiefs’ Courts as Public Authority in UN Protection of Civilian Sites in South Sudan.” London School of Economics JSRP Paper 34.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, Douglas. 2003. The Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars. Suffolk: James Currey.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, Douglas. 2014. “The Political Crisis in South Sudan.” African Studies Review 57 (3): 167–74. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/asr.2014.97.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, Douglas H. 1994. Nuer Prophets: A History of Prophecy from the Upper Nile in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jok, Jok Madut, and Sharon E. Hutchinson. 1999. “Sudan’s Prolonged Second Civil War and the Militarization of Nuer and Dinka Ethnic Identities.” African Studies Review 42 (2): 125–45. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/525368.
   Google Scholar
• Jok, Jok Madut, Hannah Wild, and Ronak Patel. 2018. “The Militarization of Cattle Raiding in South Sudan: How a Traditional Practice Became a Tool for Political Violence.” Journal of International Humanitarian Action 3 (1): 1–11.
   Google Scholar
• Kaldor, Mary. 1999. New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era. Oxford: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2006. The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kaplan, Oliver. 2017. Resisting War: How Communities Protect Themselves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman, Stuart. 2001. Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kindersley, N., and ØH. Rolandsen. 2019. “Who are the Civilians in the Wars of South Sudan?.” Security Dialogue 50 (5): 383–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010619863262.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kindersley, Nicki, and Joseph Diing Majok. 2019. Monetized Livelihoods and Militarized Labour in South Sudan’s Borderlands. Nairobi: Rift Valley Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Kuol, Luka B. D. 2017. “Dinka Youth in Civil War: Between Cattle, Community and Government.” In Informal Armies: Community Defence Groups in South Sudan’s Civil War, edited by Victoria Brereton. London: Saferworld.19–26.
   Google Scholar
• Leonardi, Cherry. 2013. Dealing with Government in South Sudan: History of Chiefship, Community and State. Woodbridge: James Currey.
   Google Scholar
• Lienhardt, Godfrey. 1963. Divinity and Experience: The Religion of the Dinka. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lund, Christian. 2006. “Twilight Institutions: Public Authority and Local Politics in Africa.” Development and Change 37 (4): 685–705. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2006.00497.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mampilly, Zachariah. 2015. “Performing the Nation-State: Rebel Governance and Symbolic Process.” In Rebel Governance in Civil War, edited by Ana Arjona, Nelson Kasfir, and Zachariah Mampilly, 74–97. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Manekin, Devorah. 2013. “Violence against Civilians in the Second Intifada: The Moderating Effect of Armed Group Structure on Opportunistic Violence.” Comparative Political Studies 46 (10): 1273–300. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414013489382.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazurana, D. E., K. Jacobsen, and L. A. Gale. 2013. Research Methods in Conflict Settings: A View from Below. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mou, Ngot, and Mou Madut. 2020. Cattle Camp Leaders are an Important Public Authority in South Sudan. LSE Centre for Public Authority and International Development. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2020/09/23/cattlecamp-leaders-are-important-public-authority-juba-south-sudan/
   Google Scholar
• Muñoz-Rojas, Daniel, and Jean-Jacques Frésard. 2004. The Roots of Behaviour in War: Understanding the Preventing IHL Violations. Geneva: ICRC.
   Google Scholar
• Narang, Neil, and Jessica A. Stanton. 2017. “A Strategic Logic of Attacking Aid Workers: Evidence from Violence in Afghanistan.” International Studies Quarterly 61 (1): 38–51. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqw053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nordstrom, Carolyn, and A. Robben. 1995a. “Creativity and Chaos: War on the Frontlines.” In Fieldwork Under Fire: Contemporary Studies, edited by Carolyn Nordstrom. Berkeley: University of California Press.1–25.
   Google Scholar
• Nyaba, Peter Adwok. 2001. The Disarmament of the Gel-Weng of Bahr El Ghazal and the Consolidation of the Nuer – Dinka Peace Agreement 1999. New Sudan Council of Churches and Pax Christi-Netherlands.Nairobi.
   Google Scholar
• Pendle, Naomi. 2020. “Politics, Prophets and Armed Mobilizations: Competition and Continuity over Registers of Authority in South Sudan’s Conflicts.” Journal of East African Studies 14 (1): 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pendle, Naomi, and Madut Anei Chirrilo. 2018. Wartime Trade and the Reshaping of Power in South Sudan. Nairobi: Rift Valley Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Pendle, Naomi R. 2015. “‘They are Now Community Police’: Negotiating the Boundaries and Nature of the Government in South Sudan through the Identity of Militarised Cattle-keepers.” International Journal of Minority and Group Rights 22 (3): 410–34. doi:https://doi.org/10.1163/15718115-02203006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pendle, Naomi R. 2017a. “Laws, Landscapes and Prophecy: The Art of Remaking Regimes of Lethal Violence Amongst the Western Nuer and Dinka (South Sudan).” PhD diss, London School of Economics and Political Science.
   Google Scholar
• Pendle, Naomi R. 2017b. “Contesting the Militarization of the Places Where They Met; the Landscapes of the Western Nuer and Dinka (South Sudan).” Journal of Eastern Africa Studies 11 (1): 64–85. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2017.1288408.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pendle, Naomi R. 2018. “‘The Dead are Just to Drink From’: Recycling Ideas of Revenge among the Western Dinka, South Sudan.” Africa 88 (1): 99–121. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0001972017000584.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pendle, Naomi. R. 2021. “The ‘Nuer of Dinka Money’ and the Demands of the Dead: Contesting the Moral Limits of Monetised Politics in South Sudan.” Conflict, Security and Development 20 (5): 587–605. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/14678802.2020.1820161.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinaud, Clémence. 2016. “Who’s behind South Sudan’s Return to Fighting?.” African Arguments, July 11, 2016. http://africanarguments.org/2016/07/11/whos-behind-south-sudans-return-to-fighting/
   Google Scholar
• Pinaud, Clémence. 2020. “Genocidal Rape in South Sudan: Organization, Function, and Effects.” Human Rights Quarterly 42 (3): 667–94. doi:https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2020.0037.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryle, John, Justin Willis, Suliman Baldo, and Jok Madut Jok. 2001. The Sudan Handbook. London: Rift Valley Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Salehyan, Idean, David Siroky, and Reed M. Wood. 2014. “External Rebel Sponsorship and Civilian Abuse: A Principal-Agent Analysis of Wartime Atrocities.” International Organization 68 (3): 633–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S002081831400006X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanton, Jessica. 2016. Violence and Restraint in Civil War: Civilian Targeting in the Shadow of International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, Pamela J., and Andrew Strathern. 2002. Violence: Theory and Ethnography. London and New York: Continuum Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, Edward. 2015. South Sudan: A Slow Liberation. London: Zed Books.
   Google Scholar
• UN Security Council. 2016. Security Council Sanctions Committee Concerning South Sudan Meets with Coordinator of Panel of Experts, Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict. Press Release SC/12535. New York: United Nations
   Google Scholar
• Weinstein, Jeremy. 2007. Inside Rebellion: The Politics of Insurgent Violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wild, Hannah, Jok MadutJok, and Ronak Patel. 2018. “The Militarization of Cattle Raiding in South Sudan: How a Traditional Practice Became a Tool for Political Violence.” Journal of International Humanitarian Action 3 (1): 2–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-018-0030-y.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, E. J. 2009. “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When Is Wartime Rape Rare?.” Politics & Society 27 (1): 131–62. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329208329755.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, John. 2016. Popular Struggles and Elite Co-operation: The Nuer White Army in South Sudan’s Civil War. Geneva: Small Arms Survey.
   Google Scholar