God and Caesar in the Democratic Republic of Congo: negotiating church–state relations through the management of school fees in Kinshasa's Catholic schools

References

• Arnaut , K. and Hojbjerg , C. 2008 . Gouvernance et ethnographie en temps de crise . Politique africaine , 111 : 5 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Bayart , J.-F. 1989 . Les églises chrétiennes et la politique du ventre: le partage du gâteau ecclésial . Politique Africaine , 35 : 3 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Bayart , J.-F. 1998 . Fait missionnaire et politique du ventre: une lecture foucaldienne . Le Fait Missionnaire , 6 : 9 – 38 . (doi:10.1163/221185298X00020)
   Google Scholar
• Bézy , F. , Peemans , J.-P. and Wautelet , J.-M. 1981 . Accumulation et sous-développement au Zaïre, 1960–1980 , Louvain-La-Neuve : Louvain University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bierschenk , T. and Olivier de Sardan , J.-P. 1997 . Local powers and a distant state in rural Central African Republic . Journal of Modern African Studies , 35 ( 3 ) : 441 – 468 . (doi:10.1017/S0022278X97002504)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyle , P. M. 1995 . School wars: church, state, and the death of the Congo . Journal of Modern African Studies , 33 ( 3 ) : 451 – 468 . (doi:10.1017/S0022278X00021200)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clements , K. , Boege , V. , Brown , A. , Foley , W. and Nolan , A. 2007 . State building reconsidered: the role of hybridity in the formation of political order . Political Science , 59 ( 1 ) : 45 – 56 . (doi:10.1177/003231870705900106)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Certeau , M. 1984 . The practice of everyday life , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• De Herdt , T. 2011 . A la recherche de l'etat en RDC: enjeux et acteurs d'une reconstruction post-conflit , Paris : Harmattan .
   Google Scholar
• De Herdt , T. , Titeca , K. and Wagemaekers , I. 2012 . Make schools, not war? Donors' rewriting of the social contract in the DRC . Development Policy Review , 30 ( 6 ) : 681 – 701 . (doi:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2012.00594.x)
   Google Scholar
• Ellis , S. and ter Haar , G. 1998 . Religion and politics in sub-Saharan Africa . Journal of Modern African Studies , 36 : 175 – 201 . (doi:10.1017/S0022278X9800278X)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis , S. and ter Haar , G. 2004 . Worlds of power: religious thought and political practice in Africa , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Engel , U. and Mehler , A. 2005 . “ ‘Under construction’: governance in Africa's new violent social spaces ” . In The African exception , Edited by: Engel , U. and Olsen , G.R. 87 – 102 . Aldershot : Ashgate .
   Google Scholar
• Gifford , P. 1994 . Some recent developments in African Christianity . African Affairs , 93 ( 373 ) : 513 – 534 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagmann , T. and Hoehne , M. V. 2009 . Failures of the state failure debate: evidence from the Somali territories . Journal of International Development , 21 ( 1 ) : 42 – 57 . (doi:10.1002/jid.1482)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagmann , T. and Péclard , D. 2010 . Negotiating statehood: dynamics of power and domination in post-colonial Africa . Development and Change , 41 ( 4 ) : 539 – 562 . (doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01656.x)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hameiri , S. 2007 . Failed states or a failed paradigm? State capacity and the limits of institutionalism . Journal of International Relations and Development , 10 : 122 – 149 . (doi:10.1057/palgrave.jird.1800120)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynes , J. 1996 . Religion and politics in Africa , London : Zed Books .
   Google Scholar
• Hearn , J. 2002 . The ‘invisible NGO’: US evangelical missions in Kenya . Journal of Religion in Africa , 32 ( 1 ) : 32 – 60 . (doi:10.1163/15700660260048465)
   Google Scholar
• Hofmeijer , E. 2011 . “ The interaction between the Roman Catholic Church and the state in Kinshasa from a mediated state perspective. Master's dissertation ” . University of Amsterdam .
   Google Scholar
• Kefale , A. 2010 . Federal restructuring in Ethiopia: renegotiating identity and borders along the Oromo–Somali ethnic frontiers . Development and Change , 41 ( 4 ) : 615 – 635 . (doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01654.x)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemarchand , R. 1988 . “ The state, the parallel economy and the changing structure of patronage systems ” . In The precarious balance: state and society in Africa , Edited by: Rothchild , D. and Chazan , N. Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lund , C. 1998 . Struggles for land and political power: on the politicization of land tenure and disputes in Niger . Journal of Legal Pluralism , 40 : 1 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Lund , C. 2006 . Twilight institutions: public authority and local politics in Africa . Development and Change , 37 ( 4 ) : 685 – 705 . (doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2006.00497.x)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manglos , N. 2011 . Brokerage in the sacred sphere: religious leaders as community problem solvers in rural Malawi . Sociological Forum , 26 ( 2 ) : 334 – 355 . (doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2011.01243.x)
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , R. 2009 . Political spiritualities: the pentecostal revolution in Nigeria , Chicago , IL : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Médard , J.-F. 1992 . Le ‘big man’ en Afrique: esquisse d'analyse du politician entrepreneur . L'année Sociologique , 42 : 167 – 192 .
   Google Scholar
• Menkhaus , K. 2006 . Governance without government in Somalia. Spoilers, state building and the politics of coping . International Security , 31 ( 3 ) : 74 – 106 . (doi:10.1162/isec.2007.31.3.74)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menkhaus , K. 2008 . The rise of a mediated state in northern Kenya: the Wajir story and its implications for state-building . Afrika Focus , 21 ( 2 ) : 23 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Miller, P., Gordon, C., and Burchell, G., eds. 1991. The Foucault effect : studies in governmentality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mrsic-Garac , S. 2008 . Etat et processus de réforme du secteur éducatif en RDC . Rapport de Mission Lubumbashi et Kinshasa Mai-Juin 2008. GRAP-OSC report [Groupe de Recherches en Appui à la Politique du Secrétaire d'Etat à la Coopération – Organisations de la Société Civil]. August. Liège: GRAP-OSC
   Google Scholar
• Nzongola-Ntalaja , G. 2002 . The Congo from Leopold to Kabila , London : Zed Books .
   Google Scholar
• Olivier de Sardan , J.-P. 2010 . Développement, modes de gouvernance et normes pratiques . Canadian Journal of Development Research , 31 ( 1–2 ) : 5 – 20 . (doi:10.1080/02255189.2010.9669327)
   Google Scholar
• Philpott , D. 2004 . Christianity and democracy: the Catholic wave . Journal of Democracy , 15 ( 2 ) : 32 – 46 . (doi:10.1353/jod.2004.0034)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raeymaekers , T. 2007 . The power of protection: governance and transborder trade on the Congo–Ugandan frontier . PhD dissertation. University of Ghent
   Google Scholar
• Raeymaekers , T. 2010 . Protection for sale? War and the transformation of regulation on the Congo–Uganda border . Development and Change , 41 ( 4 ) : 563 – 587 . (doi:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2010.01655.x)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raeymaekers , T. , Menkhaus , K. and Vlassenroot , K. 2008 . State and non-state regulation in African protracted crises: governance without government? . Afrika Focus , 21 ( 2 ) : 7 – 21 .
   Google Scholar
• Rotberg , R. 2002 . The new nature of nation-state failure . Washington Quarterly , 25 ( 3 ) : 85 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabar-Friedman , G. 1997 . Church and state in Kenya, 1986–1992: the Churches' involvement in the ‘game of change’ . African Affairs , 96 ( 382 ) : 25 – 52 . (doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007819)
   Google Scholar
• Sahlins , D. 1963 . Poor man, rich man, big-man, chief: political types in Melanesia and Polynesia . Comparative Studies in Society and History , 5 ( 3 ) : 285 – 303 . (doi:10.1017/S0010417500001729)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titeca , K. and De Herdt , T. 2011 . Real governance beyond the ‘failed state’ in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) . African Affairs , 110 ( 439 ) : 213 – 231 . (doi:10.1093/afraf/adr005)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Utas , M. 2012 . “ Introduction: bigmanity and network governance in African conflicts ” . In African conflicts and informal power: big men and networks , Edited by: Utas , M. 1 – 34 . London : Zed books .
   Google Scholar
• Van Hoywegen , S. 1996 . The disintegration of the Catholic Church of Rwanda. A study of the fragmentation of political and religious authority . African Affairs , 95 ( 380 ) : 379 – 401 . (doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007739)
   Google Scholar
• Wagemakers , I. and Makangu Diki , O. 2011 . “ Governance of urban agricultural space: struggle for land in Kinshasa (DRC) ” . In Natural resources and local livelihoods in the Great Lakes region of Africa: a political economy perspective , Edited by: Ansoms , A. and Marysse , S. 68 – 82 . Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Weber , M. 1978 . Economy and society , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• World Bank . 2005 . “ Education in the Democratic Republic of Congo: priorities and options for regeneration ” . In World Bank Country Study no. 34381 , Washington , DC : World Bank .
   Google Scholar