References
- Abati, R. 2011. "Businessmen and the 2011 Elections.” March 20. Accessed November 11, 2021. https://www.proshareng.com/articles/%20Elections%20/Businessmen-and-The-2011-Elections/2232#.
- Addeh, E. 2021. “Nigeria Concludes Marginal Field Bid Round 18 Years After.” This Day, June 1. Accessed October 27, 2021. https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2021/06/01/nigeria-concludes-marginal-field-bid-round-18-years-after/.
- Adebayo, T.-H. 2017. “Exclusive: Top PDP Financier Emeka Offor is Broke, Shuts Down Company.” Premium Times, September 7. Accessed August 5, 2019. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/242570-exclusive-top-pdp-financier-emeka-offor-broke-shuts-company.html.
- Adedeji, A., and S. Law. 2016. “The Role of Local Content Policy in Local Value Creation in Nigeria’s Oil Industry: A Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) Approach.” Resources Policy 49 (1): 61–73.
- Adeniyi, S. 2013. “Real Ownership of Indigenous Oil Blocks Revealed by Segun Adeniyi.” This Day, March 14. Sahara Reporters website. Accessed November 3, 2017. http://saharareporters.com/2013/03/14/thisday-real-ownership-indigenous-oil-blocks-revealed-segun-adeniyi.
- Adibe, R., E. Nwagwu, G. Ezirim and A. Okorie. 2018. “Rentierism and Security Privatisation in the Nigerian Petroleum Industry: Assessment of Oil Pipeline Surveillance and Protection Contracts.” Review of African Political Economy 45 (156): 345–353.
- Akeredolu-Ale, E. O. 1975. Underdevelopment of Indigenous Entrepreneurship in Nigeria. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.
- Akinsanya, A. 1994. “The Power Structure in Nigeria and the Indigenization of the Economy.” Pakistan Horizon 47 (2): 63–79.
- Akpan, U. 2017. “How Nigeria Sustains Oil Exploration, Production Despite Low Prices.” July 4. Accessed October 20, 2017. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/07/how-nigeria-sustains-oil-exploration-production-despite-low-prices/.
- Alalade, C. 2014. “Factors Influencing the Development and Reform of the Upstream Oil and Gas Fiscal Systems in the UK and Nigeria – A Comparative Study.” PhD thesis, Bournemouth University.
- Alike, E. 2017. “FG Sets Bid Round Guidelines for Award of 46 Marginal Oil Field.” This Day, September 18. Accessed August 16, 2017. https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2017/09/18/fg-sets-bid-round-guidelines-for-award-of-46-marginal-oil-fields/.
- Banfield, E., and J. Wilson. 1963. City Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press and MIT Press.
- Bayart, J., S. Ellis, and B. Hibou. 1998. The Criminalisation of the State in Africa. Oxford: James Currey.
- Boone, C. 1998. “The Making of a Rentier Class: Wealth Accumulation and Political Control in Senegal.” In Africa: Dilemmas of Development and Change, edited by P. Lewis, 456–472. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
- Brun, D. and L. Diamond. 2014. Clientelism, Social Policy, and the Quality of Democracy. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Brun, J.-P., A. Sotiropoulou, L. Gray, C. Scott and K. M. Stephenson. 2021. Asset Recovery Handbook: A Guide for Practitioners. 2nd Edition. Washington, DC: World Bank. Accessed November 11, 2021. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/34843/9781464816161.pdf?sequence=5&isAllowed=y.
- Chabal, P. and J.-P. Daloz. 1999. Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument. Oxford: James Currey.
- Clapham, C. 1996. Africa and the International System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Cruz, C., and P. Keefer. 2015. “Political Parties, Clientelism, and Bureaucratic Reform.” Comparative Political Studies 48 (14): 1942–1973.
- Edogun, C. 1985. “The Structure of State Capitalism in the Nigerian Petroleum Industry.” In Political Economy of Nigeria, edited by C. Ake. London: Longman.
- Ekukinan, A. E. 1974. Nigeria’s Indigenization Policy. Ibadan: The Caxton Press.
- Eisenstadt, S., and L. Roniger. 1980. “Patron–client Relations as a Model of Structuring Social Exchange.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 22 (1): 42– 77.
- Ezeamalu, B. 2018. “Special Report: How Corruption Fuelled Allocation of Nigeria’s Oil Blocks.” Premium Times, January 8. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/254760-special-report-corruption-fuelled-allocation-nigerias-oil-blocks.html.
- Ezirim, G. 2018. “Oil Crimes, National Security, and the Nigerian State, 1999–2015.” Japanese Journal of Political Science 19 (1): 80–100.
- Financial Times. 2008. “Humble Fare that Fed Trading Empire.” August 31. Accessed May 27, 2020. https://www.ft.com/content/a3b37fd8-75e7-11dd-99ce-0000779fd18c.
- FRN (Federal Republic of Nigeria). 1969. “Petroleum Act, no. 51.” Lagos: FRN.
- FRN. 1996. “Petroleum [Amendment] Decree no. 23 of 1996.” Abuja: FRN.
- FRN. 2004. “Nigerian Petroleum Act [as Amended] 2004).” Abuja: FRN.
- Gedde, B. 1994. Politician’s Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Global Witness. 2018. “Court to Hear Case to Force Seizure of Shell & Eni Oil Block over Corruption.” Press Release, May 7. Accessed July 12, 2019. https://www.globalwitness.org/en/press-releases/court-hear-case-force-seizure-shell-eni-oil-block-over-corruption/.
- Grazziano, L. 1973. “Patron–client Relations in Southern Italy.” European Journal of Political Research 1 (1): 3–34.
- Hicken, A. 2011. “Clientelism.” Annual Review of Political Science 14 (1): 289–310.
- Ikein, A. 1990. The Impact of Oil on a Developing Country: The Case of Nigeria. New York: Praeger.
- Iliffe, J. 1983. The Emergence of African Capitalism. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
- Iwuoha, V. C., E. T. Aniche, G. E. Ezirim, I. M. Alumona and J. N. Obiorji. 2021 forthcoming. “Impact of Covid-19 Lockdown and Social Distancing Policies on Small Businesses in South-Eastern Nigeria: Whither the Stimulus Packages?” Journal of Poverty and Social Justice: in production.
- Iwuoha, V. C., E. N. Ezeibe, and C. C. Ezeibe. 2020. “Globalization of Covid-19 Responses and Management of the Pandemic in Africa.” Local Environment 25 (8): 641–647.
- Khan, M. H. 1998. “Patron–client Networks and the Economic Effects of Corruption in Asia.” European Journal of Development Research 10 (1): 15–39.
- Kohli, A. 2004. State-directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Kopecky, P., and M. Spirova. 2011. “Jobs for the Boys? Patterns of Party Patronage in Post- Communist Europe.” West European Politics 35 (5): 897– 921.
- Lebra, T. 1975. “An Alternative Approach to Reciprocity.” American Anthropologist 77 (3): 550– 565.
- Lemarchand, R., and K. Legg. 1972. “Political Clientelism and Development: A Preliminary Analysis.” Comparative Politics 4 (2): 149–78.
- Lewis, D. 2010. The Politics of Presidential Appointments: Political Control and Bureaucratic Performance. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Milena, 2017. “The Practice of Political Rights and Patron–client Relations: A Case Study of a Party in Armenia.” Citizenship Studies 21 (8): 1034–1051.
- Nichter, S. 2008. “Vote Buying or Turnout Buying? Machine Politics and the Secret Ballot.” American Political Science Review 102 (1): 19– 31.
- NNPC (Nigerian National Petroleum Company). 2010. “2010 Annual Statistical Bulletin.” Corporate Planning & Strategy Division. Abuja: NNPC. https://nnpcgroup.com/Public-Relations/Oil-and-Gas-Statistics/Pages/Annual-Statistics-Bulletin.aspx.
- NNPC. 2015. “2015 Annual Statistical Bulletin.” Abuja: NNPC.
- NNPC. 2018. “2018 Annual Statistical Bulletin.” Abuja: NNPC.
- NNPC. n.d. “Deep Water Exploration.” Accessed 23 October 2017. https://www.nnpcgroup.com/NNPC-Business/Upstream-Ventures/Pages/Exploration.aspx.
- Nwokeji, G. U. 2007. “The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation and the Development of the Nigerian Oil and Gas Industry: History, Strategies and Current Directions.” Houston: James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University. Accessed May 27, 2020. https://www.bakerinstitute.org/media/files/page/9b067dc6/noc_nnpc_ugo.pdf.
- Obaje, N. 2009. Geology and Mineral Resources of Nigeria. London: Springer.
- Obi, C. 2009. “Nigeria’s Niger Delta: Understanding the Complex Drivers of Violent Oil-related Conflict.” Africa Development 34 (2): 103–128.
- Odogwu, O. 2018. “Arthur Eze Backs Buhari, Donates N1b for Umahi’s Reelection.” Sun News, November 28. Accessed September 12, 2019. https://www.sunnewsonline.com/arthur-eze-backs-buhari-donates-n1b-for-umahis-reelection/.
- Ogbuagu, C. S. 1983. “The Nigerian Indigenization Policy: Nationalism or Pragmatism?” African Affairs 82 (327): 241–266.
- Oguniesi, T. 2015. “Nigeria: The Men Behind the Money.” Africa Report, February 13. https://www.theafricareport.com/3357/nigeria-the-men-behind-the-money/amp/.
- Oil Revenue Tracking Initiative, Enough is Enough Nigeria and Shehu Musa Yar’Adua Foundation. 2013. “Nigeria’s Oil Industry: Communicating the Basics. Interim Report, March–April 2013.” Accessed November 2, 2017. https://www.stakeholderdemocracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Nigerias-Oil-Industry-Communicating-the-Basics.pdf.
- Olawoyin, O. 2021. “Malabu Scandal: Dan Etete Hails Italian Verdict, Says He Has No Case to Answer in Nigeria.” Premium Times, March 23. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/450820-malabu-scandal-dan-etete-hails-italian-verdict-says-he-has-no-case-to-answer-in-nigeria.html.
- Olsen, W. H. 2005. “The Nigerian Bidding Round 2005: An Observer’s Reflections on the Transparency Issues.” Chatham House presentation. Accessed May 20, 2020. Formerly available at http://www.chathamhouse.org.uk/files/6393_ggolsen.pdf.
- Onuoha, F. 2012. “Piracy and Maritime Security in the Gulf of Guinea.” Accessed March 12, 2017. https://studies.aljazeera.net/en/reports/2012/06/2012612123210113333.html.
- Ovadia, J. S. 2013. “The Making of Oil-backed Indigenous Capitalism in Nigeria.” New Political Economy 18(2): 258–283.
- Pegg, S. 1999. “The Cost of Doing Business: Transnational Corporations and Violence in Nigeria.” Security Dialogue 30 (4): 473–484.
- Petroleum Revenue Special Task Force. 2012. Report. August, ‘confidential draft’. Accessed September 25, 2017. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/docs_download/Report_of_the_Ribadu_led_Petroleum%20Revenue%20Special%20Task%20Force%202012.pdf.
- Reno, W. 2003. “Political Networks in a Failing State: The Roots and Future of Violent Conflict in Sierra Leone.” Internationale Politik und Gesellschaft 2 (1): 44–66.
- Roniger, L. 2004. “Political Clientelism, Democracy, and Market Economy.” Comparative Politics 36 (3). http://www.rochelleterman.com/ComparativeExam/sites/default/files/Bibliography%20and%20Summaries/Comparative%20Politics_0.pdf.
- Sahara Reporters. 2014. “Govs, Businessmen, Others Donate N21.27bn to Jonathan.” December 21. Accessed February 23, 2019. http://saharareporters.com/2014/12/21/govs-businessmen-others-donate-n2127bn-jonathan.
- Sahara Reporters. 2017. “Malabu Scandal: Despite Prosecution of Shell, Top Officials, Nigeria Allows Continued Operation of Oil Block.” October 23. Accessed July 12, 2019. http://saharareporters.com/2017/10/23/malabu-scandal-despite-prosecution-shell-top-officials-nigeria-allows-continued-operation.
- Sandbrook, R. 1972. “Patrons, Clients, and Factions: New Dimensions of Conflict Analysis in Africa.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 5 (1): 104–119.
- Schultze-Kraft, M. 2013. “Elites, Oil and Violence Mitigation in the Niger Delta.” IDS Policy Briefing no. 35, May. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. Accessed May 23, 2020. https://www.ids.ac.uk/publications/elites-oil-and-violence-mitigation-in-the-niger-delta/.
- Scott, J. C. 1972. “Patron–client Politics and Political Change in Southeast Asia.” American Political Science Review 66 (1): 91–113.
- Singh, N. 2011. “Nigeria’s Elusive Quest for Democracy: Multinational Corporations and Sustenance of Authoritarianism.” African and Asian Studies 10 (2): 209–233.
- Smith, B. 2004. “Oil Wealth & Regime Survival in the Developing World: 1960–1999.” American Journal of Political Science 48 (2): 232–246.
- Soares de Oliveira, R. M. 2007. Oil and the Politics in the Gulf of Guinea. London: Hurst.
- Special Investigative Committee. 2007. Report of the Special Investigative Committee on 2007 Licensing Round. Unpublished, August.
- Stokes, S., T. Dunning, M. Nazareno, and V. Brusco. 2013. Brokers, Voters, and Clientelism: The Puzzle of Distributive Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Sweetcrude Reports. 2017. “Nigeria: Seven Oil Licenses Illegally Awarded Between 2008 & 2011.” Accessed November 3, 2017. https://sweetcrudereports.com/nigeria-seven-oil-licenses-illegally-awarded-between-2008-2011/.
- The Oil and Gas Year. 2015. “The Oil and Gas Year: The Who’s Who of the Global Energy Industry. Nigeria 2015.” Accessed September 13, 2017. https://fliphtml5.com/jeod/uttr/basic.
- The Punch. 2019. “Concerns As 211 Nigerian Oil Blocks Remain Idle.” April 8. Accessed 2 October 2019. https://punchng.com/concerns-as-211-nigerian-oil-blocks-remain-idle/.
- Usman, A., M. Ikemefuna, and A. Fatimah. 2015. “Evidence of Petroleum Resources on Nigerian Economic Development (2000–2009).” Business and Economics Journal 6 (2): 1–4.
- Vines, A., L. Wong, M. Weimer and I. Campos. 2009. “Thirst for African Oil Asian National Oil Companies in Nigeria and Angola.” Chatham House Report. London: Chatham House. Accessed June 2, 2020. https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/r0809_africanoil.pdf.
- Watts, M. 2007. “Imperial Oil: The Anatomy of a Nigerian Oil Insurgency.” Niger Delta Economies of Violence Working Papers, no 17. Accessed June 2, 2020. http://geog.berkeley.edu/ProjectsResources/ND%20Website/NigerDelta/WP/17-Watts.pdf.
- Weingrod, A. 1968. “Patrons, Patronage, and Political Parties.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 10 (4): 377– 400.
- Williams, G. 1976. Nigeria: Economy and Society. London: Rex Collins.
- Wilson, J. Q. 1961. “The Economy of Patronage.” Journal of Political Economy 69 (4): 369–380.