- Cramer , C. and Pontara , N. 1998 . 'Rural Poverty and Poverty Alleviation in Mozambique: What's Missing from the Debate?' . Journal of Modern African Studies , 36 ( 1 ) : 101 – 138 .
- 1999 . 'Reply to Pitcher . Journal of Modern African Studies , 37 ( 4 ) : 711 – 722 .
- Cramer , C. and Pontara , N. 1999 . "Rural Poverty and Poverty Alleviation in Mozambique: What's Missing from the Debate?'" . Journal of Modern African Studies , 37 ( 4 ) : 697 – 709 . M. A. Pitcher, 'What's Missing from "What's Missing"? A Reply to
- Pitcher . “ 'What's Missing' ” . 706
- Bris , E. le , Rey , P.-Ph. and Samuel , M. 1976 . Capitalisme Négrier, la Marche des Paysans vers le Prolétariat , Paris : Maspero . This was the subtitle of an excellent collection of papers by, dealing with labour migration and proletarianisation in West Africa
- Ranger , T. 1985 . Peasant Consciousness and Guerilla War in Zimbabwe: a Comparative Study , 29 London : James Currey . shows self-peasantisation in the aftermath of conquest. See also
- Schmidt , E. 1992 . Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 , Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann .
- Cheater , A. 1984 . Idioms of Accumulation: Rural Development and Class Formation among Freeholders in Zimbabwe , Gweru : Marabo Press .
- Moore , H. L. and Vaughan , M. 1994 . Cutting Dawn Trees: Gender, Nutrition and Agricultural Change in the Northern Province of Zambia, 1890-1990 , London : James Currey .
- Beinart , W. and Bundy , C. 1987 . Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa , London : James Currey .
- Ranger, Peasant Consciousness.
- Cooper , F. 1983 . “ 'Urban Space, Industrial Time and Wage Labor in Africa' ” . In Struggle for the City: Migrant Labor, Capital and the Struggle for Urban Africa , Edited by: Cooper , F. 7 – 50 . Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
- van Onselen , C. 1976 . Chibaro: African Mute Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1900-1933 , London : Pluto Press . See interalia Ranger, Peasant Consciousness;
- Isaacman , A. 1996 . Cotton is The Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 , Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann .
- Isaacman . Cotton is the Mother 240
- Farrington , J. , Carney , D. , Ashley , C. and Turton , C. 1999 . 'Sustainable Livelihoods in Practice: Early Applications of Concepts in Rural Areas' . Natural Resource Perspectives , 42 June (ODI
- January 2001 . Emerging Issues in Rural Development: a Background Paper , January , London : ODI . http:// www.oneworld.org/odi/nrp/42.html, and various contributions on livelihoods frameworks in, http://www.agronor.org/RDbackground.html.
- Sen , A. 1981 . Poverty and Famines, an essay on Entitlement and Deprivation , Oxford : Clarendon Press . On the influence of
- Chambers , R. and Conway , G. R. 1992 . “ 'Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century ' ” . Institute of Development Studies Discussion Papers No. 296 Brighton : University of Sussex, Institute of Development Studies .
- Ellis , F. 2000 . Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries , Oxford : Oxford University Press . and the institutionalist approaches that dominate http://www.livelihoods.org. For an extended discussion of the colonisation of the social sciences by the methodological individualism of neo-classical economics, see
- Fine , B. 2001 . Social Capital Versus Social Theory: Political Economy and Social Science at the Turn of the Millennium , London and New York : Routledge .
- Aptheker , H. 1963 . American Negro Slave Revolts: Nat Turner, Denmark Vesey, Gabriel, and Others , New York : International Publishers . The work of the resistance historians was inspired by Hobsbawm's Primitive Rebels and that of Aptheker, Foner and Genovese writing on slavery.
- Hobsbawm , E. J. 1959 . Primitive Rebels: Studies in Archaic Forms of Social Movement in the 19th and 20th Centuries , Manchester : Manchester University Press .
- Foner , Eric . 1971 . Nat Turner , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall .
- Genovese , Eugene . 1974 . Roll, Jordan, Roll: the World the Slaves Made , New York : Pantheon Books . Incidentally, my reading of Marxist scholarship on cotton production in Mozambique does not find all peasants reduced to victims nor resistance neglected
- Ranger , T. O. 1977 . "The people in African resistance' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 4 ( 1 ) : 125 – 146 . provides a good summary of the Marxist criticisms of that time and of his response (in a time of optimism about socialist revolutions in Africa).
- Brass , T. 1999 . Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labour: Case Studies and Debates , 254 London and Portland, Oregon : Frank Cass .
- Scott , J. C. 1990 . Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts , New Haven and London : Yale University Press . builds a robust Marxist attack in the South Asian context on
- 1985 . Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance , New Haven : Yale University Press .
- Harries , Patrick . 1994 . Work, Culture and Identity: Migrant Laborers in Mozambique and South Africa, c. 1860-1910 , Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann .
- Covane , Luis A. 1988 . 'Consideraçöes Sobre O Impacto da Penetração Capitaliste no SuI de Moçambique, 1850-1876' . Cademos de História , 7 ( 2 ) : 91 – 106 .
- Penvenne , J. 1995 . African Workers and Colonial Racism, Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques, 1877-1962 , 105 Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann .
- Newitt . A History 383
- Newitt . A History 409
- Fortuna , C. 1993 . O Flo da Meada: O Algodao de Moçambique, Portugal e a Economia--Mundo (1860-1960) , 180 Porto : Ediç[otilde]es Afrontamento .
- Newitt . A History 384
- Newitt . A History 411 After 1914, a small wage was also paid for penal labour,
- Mackintosh , M. 1987 . 'Agricultural Marketing and Socialist Accumulation: a Case Study of Maize Marketing in Mozambique' . Journal of Peasant Studies , 14 ( 2 ) : 243 – 267 .
- 1955 . Estatistica Agricola de Moçambique , Lourenço Marques : Direcção provincial dos services de estatistica geral . Calculated from
- Hedges , D. and Chilundo , A. 1993 . “ 'A Contestação da Situação Colonial, 1945-1961 ' ” . In História de Moçambique, Vol. III, Moçambique no Auge do Colonialismo, 1930-1961 , Edited by: Rocha , A. Vol. III , 214 Maputo : Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Departamento de História .
- Penvenne , J. 1981 . 'Shibalo e Classe Operária: Lourenço Marques 1870-1962' . Estudos Moçambicanos , 2 : 9 – 26 .
- Centra de Estudos Africanos . 1977 . Homoine research
- Centra de Estudos Africanos . 1982 . Angonia research
- Harris , M. 1959 . 'Labour Emigration among the Mozambican Thonga: Culture and Political Factors' . Africa , 29 : 50 – 66 .
- First , R. 1983 . Black Gold: the Mozambican Miner, Proletarian and Peasant , Sussex : Harvester . Centra de Estudos Africanos, Archives, J. Penvenne, Port Interviews; A. Manghezi, S. Zandamela, A. José, interviews, Inhambane research, 1977, Port research, 1981;
- José , A. 1987 . A Greve dos Carregadores da Estiva do Porto Comercial de Lourenço Marques em Agosto de 1963 no Contexto da Luta de Libertaçäo Naciona l de Moçambique e Alguns Problemas na Reconstruçäo da Historia do Operariado Moçambicano , Maputo : Eduardo Mondlane University . Dissertaçäo para o grau de licenciatura em história,
- Newitt . A History 511
- Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother, Hedges and Chilundo, 'A Contestação'.
- Bravo, A Cultura Algodoeira.
- Isaacman , A. 1980-08-12 . “ 'A Resistência Popular à Cultura Forçada do AIgodão em Moçambique, 1930-1961' ” . Vol. 10 , 6 CEDIMO Série A .
- E. Alpers, "To Seek a Better Life'".
- Adam and Gentili . “ 'O Movimento' ” . 49
- Manghezi , A. 1983 . 'Ku thekela: Estratégia de Sobrevivência contra a Pome no SuI de Moçambique' . Estudos Moçambicanos , 4 : 19 – 40 .
- Isaacman and Chilundo . “ 'Peasants at Work' ” . 171
- Centra de Estudos Africanos . 1981 . Alta-Zambézia research
- Hedges , D. and Rocha , A. “ 'A Reestruturação da Sociedade Mocambicana, 1938-1944' ” . In Historia de Moçambique Edited by: Rocha . 112 – 113 .
- Bruce , J. W. 1990 . “ 'Land Policy and State Farm Divestiture in Mozambique ' ” . 2 Madison : Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin .
- Van Onselen, Chibaro; Tornimbeni, Labour Migration; das Neves, Economy, Society and Labour.
- Lincoln, 'Plantation Agriculture'.
- Isaacman . Cotton is the Mother 220 Only in some border areas were there occasional possibilities of improving the terms of trade by smuggling cotton for sale in adjoining countries.
- Miracle , M. 1966 . Maize in Tropical Africa , 154 – 155 . Madison : Wisconsin University Press .
- O'Laughlin , B. 2000 . 'Class and the Customary: the Ambiguous Legacy of the lndigenato in Mozambique' . African Affairs , 99 ( 394 ) : 5 – 42 . for an analysis of the relationship between forms of local governance and forced labour
- Isaacman . Cotton is the Mother 213
- Ibid., p. 223.
- Ibid., p. 222.
- Ibid., p. 225.
- Geffray , Christian . 1985 . Transformations Historiques de l'Organisation Familiale Ma-Khuwa 1940-1975 (Erati)' , Rapport 4 Paris
- 1973 . Inquérito Agrícole de Moçambique 1970 , Lourenço Marques : Moçambique .
- Ferreira , A. Rita . 1967-8 . Os Africains de Lourenço Marques, Lourenço Marques , 156 Memóries do Instituto de Investigaçao Científica de Moçambique .
- Whitehead , A. 1991 . “ 'Food Crisis and Gender Conflict in the African Countryside' ” . In The Food Question, Profits versus People? , Edited by: Bernstein , H. 54 – 68 . London : Earthscan . Whitehead and others, looking at gender issues in development in West Africa, emphasised that Boserup's notion that capitalist development brought men into the market while relegating women to the sphere of subsistence missed a central element in the process, namely that a good deal of the income earned by men through cash-crop production depended on women's farm labour. See
- Penvenne . African Workers 152
- Isaacman . Cotton is the Mother 236 The relationship between productivity and resistance was variable however, across time and between regions. In a CEA study of Lugela, Zambéézia, we found records showing increases in total production, kilogram per producer and kilogram per hectare in the period between 1952 and 1960,
- 1981 . Centrode Estudos Africanos,Já nao batem , Report 1981/3 Maputo : Eduardo Mondlane University .
- Young , S. 1977 . “ 'Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique' ” . In The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa , Edited by: Palmer , R. and Parsons , N. 66 – 81 . London : Heinemann Educational Books .
- Arrighi , G. 1973 . “ 'Labour Supplies in Historical Perspective: a Study of the Proletarianisation of the African Peasantry in Rhodesia' ” . In Essays on the Political Economy of Africa , Edited by: Arrighi , G. and Saul , J. 180 – 234 . New York : Monthly Review Press . Although Ranger's work in Makoni (in Peasant Consciousness) challenged the historical accuracy of some aspects of his account, Arrighi drew attention to the ways in which the loss of craft production could make peasants dependent on the purchase of manufactured commodities in Zimbabwe. See, Schmidt's work, Peasants, Traders, and Wives, drew attention to gender differences in technical change in rural production
- Wield , D. 1983 . “ 'Mozambique -- Late Colonialism and Early Problems of Transition' ” . In Revolutionary Socialist Development in the Third World , Edited by: White , G. , Murray , R. and White , C. 76 – 113 . Sussex : Wheatsheaf Books . Wield estimated that there were about a million wage-workers out of a total active population of 9 million; only about one quarter held permanent jobs;
- Castel-Branco , C. , Cramer , C. and Hailu , D. August 2001 . “ 'Privatization and Economic Strategy in Mozambique' ” . WIDER Discussion Paper No. 2001/64 August , 11
- de Sousa , C. 1999 . 'Rebuilding Rural Livelihoods and Social Capital: Mozambique's Experience' . paper presented at the UNIT/WIDER project meeting on Underdevelopment, Transition and Reconstruction in Sub-Saharan Africa . April 16-17 1999 , Helsinki.
- Marzetti , G. 2002 . “ 'Rural Livelihoods and Agricultural Change: The Dynamics of Poverty, A Case Study from Motrumbala District, Mozambique' ” . University of Manchester . PhD thesis
- McGregor , J. 1997 . 'Violence and Social Change in a Border Economy: War in the Maputo Hinterland' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 24 ( 1 ) : 37 – 60 .
- Wuyts , M. , Dolny , H. and O'Laughlin , B. 2001 . Assumptions and Partnerships in the Making of a Country Strategy. An Evaluation of the Swedish-Mozambican Experience , SIDA Evaluation 01/07 22 – 26 . Stockholm If the city of Maputo is excluded, head count income measures of poverty do not show that poverty is less in southern Mozambique. For a discussion of this, see
Journal of Southern African Studies
Volume 28, 2002 - Issue 3