- Murphree , M. W. 1997 . 'Congruent Objectives, Competing Interests and Strategic Compromises' . paper presented to the conference Representing Communities: Histories and Politics of Community-Based Resource Management . 1-3 June 1997 , Georgia. pp. 6
- Murphree , M. W. 1995 . “ 'The Lesson from Mahenye: Rural Poverty, Democracy and Wildlife Conservation' ” . In International Institute for Environment and Development , Wildlife and Development Series, No. 1 3 London : IIED .
- Blaikie , P. 1985 . The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in Developing Countries , 124 London : Longman .
- Murphree , M. W. 1993 . “ 'Communities as Resource Management Institutions' ” . 12 London : IIED .
- Beinart , W. 1999 . African History, Environmental History and Race Relations , 4 Oxford : Oxford University Press .
- McDermott-Hughes , D. 1995 . “ 'Community-Based Forest Management in the Lucite (Rusitu) Valley: People and Policies of a Proposed Mozambique-Zimbabwe Transfrontier Conservation Area' ” . 2 Maputo : World Bank .
- Bryant , R. and Bailey , S. 1997 . Third World Political Ecology , London : Routledge .
- Murphree . “ 'Communities' ” . 4
- World Bank, Institute Italo-Africano . 1989 . “ 'Strengthening Local Governments in Sub-Saharan Africa' ” . Economic Development Institute Policy Seminar report, Number 21 vii Washington, D.C.
- Leach , M. , Mearns , R. and Scoones , I. 1997 . 'Challenges to Community-Based Sustainable Development: Dynamics, Entitlements, Institutions' . /DS Bulletin , 28 ( 4 ) : 4 – 14 . Murphree traces the history of the idea of CBNRM back to Aldo Leopold in the 1930s ('Congruent objectives', p. 4, note 8), and Leach, Mearns and Scoones note its emergence in at least the 1970s , But both sources pinpoint the 1980s and 1990s as the period when such projects took off globally, Leach, Mearnes and Scoones, 'Challenges'
- Bryant , R. L. 1998 . 'Power, Knowledge and Political Ecology in the Third World: A Review' . Progress in Physical Geography , 22 ( 1 ) : 279 – 298 .
- Bryant . “ 'Power, Knowledge and Political Ecology' ” . 281 Blaikie, The Political Economy of Soil Erosion
- Watson , E. , Black , R. and Harrison , E. 1999 . “ 'Reconstruction of Natural Resource Management Institutions in Post-Conflict Situations: Framework for Research' ” . Marena Research Project Working Paper 1 University of Sussex .
- Alexander , J. and McGregor , J. 1996 . 'Our Sons Didn't Die for Animals: Attitudes to Wildlife and the Politics of Development ' . paper presented at the International Conference on the Historical Dimensions of Democracy and Human Rights in Zimbabwe . September 1996 , Harare.
- Murphree , M. W. 1996 . ' "Ex Africa semper aliquid novi?" Considerations in Linking African Environmental Scholarship, Policy and Practice' . paper presented to the Pan African Symposium on the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and Community Participation . June 24-27 1996 . Harare
- Bell , R. 1999 . 'CBNRM and Other Acronyms: an Overview and Challenges in the Southern African Region' . paper presented to the Centre for Applied Social Sciences . 1999 . University of Zimbabwe .
- Hill , K. 1996 . 'Zimbabwe's Wildlife Utilization Programs: Grassroots Democracy or an Extension of State Power?' . African Studies Review , 39 ( 1 ) : 103 – 121 . Hill develops this argument, although he does not consider the CAMPRRE projects a failure as our argument implies in the case of Moribane. See
- Ferguson , J. 1990 . The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development', Depoliticization and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Ferguson argues the same for development initiatives more generally, suggesting that increased state control is perhaps an unintended result - this article argues that extension of control may be not be solely a fortuitous coincidence for the state. See
- Bowen , M. 2000 . The State Against the Peasantry: Rural Struggles in Colonial and Postcolonial Mozambique , Charlottesville and London : University Press of Virginia .
- Hermele , K. 1992 . “ 'Stick or Carrot? Political Alliances and Nascent Capitalism in Mozambique' ” . In Authoritarianism, Democracy and Adjustment: the Politics of Economic Reform in Africa , Edited by: Gibbon , P. , Bangura , Y. and Ofsted , A. 169 – 186 . Uppsala : Scandinavian Institute of African Studies .
- Myers , G. 1994 . 'Competitive Rights, Competitive Claims: Land Access in Post-war Mozambique' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 20 ( 4 ) December : 603 – 632 .
- Hanlon , J. 1991 . Mozambique: Who Calls the Slots? , London : James Currey .
- Alexander , J. 1997 . "The Local State in Post-war Mozambique: Political Practice and Ideas about Authority' . Africa , 67 ( 1 ) : 1 – 26 .
- Murphree, 'Congruent Objectives'.
- Garvey , J. 1997 . 'Critical Points of the Environmental Framework Law', Land Tenure Centre Project Mozambique (1997); S. Kloeck-Jenson, 'Analysis of the Parliamentary Debate and New National Land Law for Mozambique' . Land Tenure Center , For more detailed analyses of these laws, see, Maputo
- McDermott-Hughes , David . 2001 . 'Rezoned for business: how eco-tourism unlocked black farmland in eastern Zimbabwe,' . Journal of Agrarian Change , 1 ( 4 ) : 575 – 599 . 'Frontier Dynamics: Enslavement, Enclosure, and Environmentalism on the Zimbabwe-Mozambique Border', unpublished manuscript. He argues that despite the renewed interest in settler-led development, a crucial element of this paradigm is being omitted, namely, areas (reserves) for African people that will afford them protected space against the rapaciousness of settlers (p. 53). CBNRM programmes allowing 'multi-use' of resources thus break down the barriers put up around the 'native' reserves to protect at least some area for African smallholder farmers
- Foloma , M. 'The Experience of Community-Based Natural Resource Management and Public Participation in the Zambezi Valley' . paper presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property conference . May 31 , Bloomington. Indiana 4 June 2000
- Geffrey , C. 1990 . La Cause Des Armes au Mozambique: Anthropologie d'une guerre civile , Paris : Karthala .
- West , H. G. and Kloeck-Jenson , S. 1999 . 'Betwixt and Between: "Traditional Authority" and Democratic Decentralisation in Post-War Mozambique' . African Affairs , 98 ( 393 ) : 455 – 484 .
- Hughes , D. 1999 . “ 'Frontier Dynamics: Struggles for Land and Clients on the Zimbabwe-Mozambique Border' ” . Berkeley There is some debate amongst those who have studied the management of resources in this part of Mozambique, as to whether chiefly control refers to geographically bounded areas or human populations of 'subjects'. Hughes argues that in this region of Mozambique, Ndau chiefly authority has been expressed in 'power over people' as a result of Portuguese colonial labour policy, in contrast to Zimbabwean chiefly rule that has focused on geographical boundaries as a result of Rhodesian colonial land policy, PhD thesis, The authors of this article found that although there was occasional disagreement between neighbouring chieftaincies over geographical boundaries, there was a basic acceptance of the idea that a chief ruled over a portion of territory, as well as over people who were bound to him as subjects through a symbolic contract, mediated through spiritual practices. These two positions are not entirely incompatible, however, as Hughes also argued that in both Zimbabwe and Mozambique, chiefly legitimacy was based on links with ancestral guardian spirits of the land. Thus, power was linked with land, but not in die same way as western political and administrative boundaries presuppose
- Cultural , Arquivo do Patrormónio . 1999 . “ 'Diagnóstico Rápido Rural Participativo: Perfil da Comunidade de Mupunga' ” . Chimoio
- Florestal , Centra de Experimentação . 1997 . 'Relatório das actividades' . Manica ,
- Newitt , M. 1981 . Portugal in Africa: The last Hundred years , Harlow : Longman . This position is supported by Newitt who notes the 'spectacular growth in the trade of wild rubber in the late 19th century'
- German Technical Cooperation . 'Integrated Rural Development Programme for Manica Province' . Mozambique Agricultural Rural Reconstruction Programme , 1995 Approximately a third of the population of Dombe administrative post fled during the war, according to UNHCR figures at the time of repatriation, Chimoio
- O'Laughlin . 1995 . "Through a Divided Glass'; C. Castel-Branco, 'Opçoes Economicas de Mozambique, 1975-95: Problemes, Liçoes e Ideias Alternatives' ” . In Moçambique: Eleiç[otilde]es, Democracia e Desenvolvimento , Edited by: Manila , B. 581 – 636 . Maputo : Inter-Africa Press . Co-operatives were introduced primarily to institute collective farming. As with the Ujamaa programme of Tanzania, this was a serious failure and was one of the primary causes of disagreement between the Frelimo government and the rural people, contributing to much rural support for Renamo. See
- Harrison , G. 1998 . 'Democracy in Mozambique: The Significance of Multi-party Elections' . Review of African Political Economy , 67 : 19 – 35 . This is not to imply that identifying representative institutions at a local level is a straightforward issue, however. First, there is no global consensus on the ideal form of representative politics. Second, there are local debates over legitimacy and representation, such as those highlighted in this article, as well as in, West and Kloeck-Jenson, 'Betwixt and Between'
- O'Laughlin . 1996 . "Through a Divided Glass' ” . In 'A Pobreza em Mocambique, Um Estudo Participative Sobre a Pobreza' Edited by: Adam , Y. , Coimbra , H. and Owen , D. Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo
- McGregor , J. 1998 . 'Violence and Social Change in a Border Economy: War in the Maputo Hinterland, 1984-1992' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 24 ( 1 ) : 37 – 60 .
- Geffray . La Cause Des Armes, p. 167; A. Vines, Rename: Terrorism in Mozambique , London : James Currey; Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press . Most authors are loathe to refer to Renamo's war-time strategy as constituting a 'political programme'; see, for example, 1991
- Nilsson , A. 1993 . 'From Pseudo-Terrorists to Pseudo-Guerrillas: The MNR in Mozambique' . Review of African Political Economy , 58 : 35 – 42 . but others recognise that insofar as Renamo took a stand in opposition to Frelimo's policies and philosophy, it is accurate to talk of Renamo policy even when practice did not always cohere with rhetoric. See, We follow the latter approach: while recognising that there was much evidence of political opportunism on the part of Renamo, some of the variation in policy was linked with Renamo's attempts to achieve local popularity, and a broader interpretation could cite this as evidence of a locally influenced agenda
- See West and Kloeck-Jenson, 'Betwixt and Between'.
- Cahen , M. 1993 . 'Check on Socialism in Mozambique : What Check? What Socialism?' . Review cf African Political Economy , 57 : 46 – 59 . O'Laughlin, "Through a Divided Glass', and Bowen, The State against the Peasantry. These writers tend to assume a simple mistake on the part of the post-independence government. An alternative explanation put forward by Cahen suggests that Frelimo was more Machiavellian than this implies, and that its actions were linked with the party ' s social roots and political interests
- See O' Laughlin, 'Through a Divided Glass'.
- Ribeiro , A. 1999 . “ 'Institutional Development for Community-Based Resource Management' ” . In Sustainable Development in Mozambique , Edited by: Ferraz , B. and Munslow , B. 88 – 96 . Trenton, NJ : Africa World Press . CEF is a government body dedicated to forestry research, within the National Department of Forestry and Wildlife. See, Maputo, MICOA; Oxford, James Currey
- Ribeiro, 'Institutional Development'.
- 1999 . 'Política e Estratégia de Desenvolvimento de Florestas e Fauna Bravia' . Maputo , 47 Departemento Nacional de Florestas e Fauna Bravía, Article 3
- See West and Kloeck-Jenson, 'Betwixt and Between'.
- Wilson , K. 1992 . 'Cults of Violence and Counter-Violence in Mozambique' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 18 ( 3 ) : 527 – 582 . There are countless examples of political manipulation of spiritual beliefs and symbolism. In Mozambique, see, in Zimbabwe
- Lan , D. 1985 . Guns and Rain: Guerrillas and Spirit Mediums in Zimbabwe , London : James Currey . Berkeley, University of California Press
- This conclusion is also reached by Bowen in her historical study of agrarian politics in Mozambique. Bowen, The State against the Peasantry, p. 207.
- Alexander, 'The Local State'.
- Roesch , O. 1992 . 'Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition' . Southern Africa Report , : 27 – 30 . This area is in the heart of the Ndau population of Mozambique, and many writers have suggested that the Ndau formed the core of the Renamo movement - some saw this as based on historical accident, as the Ndau live on the border with Zimbabwe and were recruited by the Rhodesian regime as counter-insurgents during the Zimbabwean war for independence. See
- Finnegan , W. 1992 . A Complicated War: The Harrowing of Mozambique , Berkeley : University of California Press .
- Cahen , M. 2000 . 'Nationalism and Ethnicities: Lessons from Mozambique' . Working Paper, Contemporary Portuguese Politics and History Research Centre . 2000 . University of Dundee . Others suggest a deeper historical basis for Ndau opposition to the Frelimo government, rooted in the beginning of the twentieth century with the transfer of the Mozambican capital from the north to the south, signalling the emergence of a new southern assimttado elite and the marginalisation of the former northern Creole elite, and possibly also marginalisation of pro-Ngungunhan a factions within central and southern Mozambique. See
- Alexander, 'The Local State'.
- Harrison , G. 'Marketing Legitimacy in Rural Mozambique' . Journal of Modern African Studies , 36 ( 4 ) 569 – 610 . See also
- Moore , D. S. 1993 . 'Contesting Terrain in Zimbabwe's Eastern Highlands: Political Ecology, Ethnography and Peasant Resource Struggles' . Economic Geography , 69 : 380 – 401 . It is likely that many of the objections to other externally-imposed conservation measures also lie behind the Mpunga residents' reluctance to comply, such as unwillingness to invest labour in these time-consuming measures with no guarantee of results, no perceived need, and no security of land tenure. See Blaikie, Political Economy
Journal of Southern African Studies
Volume 28, 2002 - Issue 2