14,188
Views
32
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Immersive virtual reality for science learning: Design, implementation, and evaluation

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 205-244 | Received 22 May 2021, Accepted 24 May 2022, Published online: 02 Jul 2022

References

  • Adams, N. E. (2015). Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 103(3), 152–153. https://doi.org/10.3163/1536-5050.103.3.010
  • *Ahn, S. J., Bostick, J., Ogle, E., Nowak, K. L., McGillicuddy, K. T., & Bailenson, J. N. (2016). Experiencing nature: Embodying animals in immersive virtual environments increases inclusion of nature in self and involvement with nature. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 21(6), 399–419. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12173
  • Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
  • *Andreasen, N. K., Baceviciute, S., Pande, P., & Makransky, G. (2019). Virtual reality instruction followed by enactment can increase procedural knowledge in ascience lesson. 2019 26th IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces, Osaka, Japan (pp. 840–841). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/VR.2019.8797755
  • *Artun, H., Durukan, A., & Temur, A. (2020). Effects of virtual reality enriched science laboratory activities on pre-service science teachers’ science process skills. Education and Information Technologies, 25(6), 5477–5498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10220-5
  • *Bagher, M. M., Sajjadi, P., Carr, J., La Femina, P., & Klippel, A. (2020), June. Fostering penetrative thinking in geosciences through immersive experiences: A case study in visualizing earthquake locations in 3D. 6th International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN), San Luis Obispo, CA, USA. IEEE.
  • *Bennie, S. J., Ranaghan, K. E., Deeks, H., Goldsmith, H. E., O’Connor, M. B., Mulholland, A. J., & Glowacki, D. R. (2019). Teaching enzyme catalysis using interactive molecular dynamics in virtual reality. Journal of Chemical Education, 96(11), 2488–2496. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00181
  • *Bhattacharjee, D., Paul, A., Kim, J. H., & Karthigaikumar, P. (2018). An immersive learning model using evolutionary learning. Computers & Electrical Engineering, 65, 236–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2017.08.023
  • *Bibic, L., Druskis, J., Walpole, S., Angulo, J., & Stokes, L. (2019). Bug off pain: An educational virtual reality game on spider venoms and chronic pain for public engagement. Journal of Chemical Education, 96(7), 1486–1490. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00905
  • *Boda, P. A., & Brown, B. (2020a). Designing for relationality in virtual reality: Context-specific learning as a primer for content relevancy. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 29(5), 691–702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09849-1
  • *Boda, P. A., & Brown, B. (2020b). Priming urban learners’ attitudes toward the relevancy of science: A mixed-methods study testing the importance of context. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 57(4), 567–596. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21604
  • Bower, M., DeWitt, D., & Lai, J. W. M. (2020). Reasons associated with preservice teachers’ intention to use immersive virtual reality in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2215–2233. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13009
  • Bowman, D. A., & McMahan, R. P. (2007). Virtual reality: How much immersion is enough? Computer, 40(7), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.1109/MC.2007.257
  • *Brown, B., Pérez, G., Ribay, K., Boda, P. A., & Wilsey, M. (2020). Teaching culturally relevant science in virtual reality: “When a problem comes, you can solve it with science”. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 32(1), 7–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2020.1778248
  • *Broyer, R. M., Miller, K., Ramachandran, S., Fu, S., Howell, K., & Cutchin, S. (2020). Using virtual reality to demonstrate glove hygiene in introductory chemistry laboratories. Journal of Chemical Education, 98(1), 224–229. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00137
  • Chavez, B., & Bayona, S. (2018). Virtual reality in the learning process. In A. Rocha, H. Adeli, L. Reis, & S. Costanzo (Eds.), Trends and advances in information systems and technologies. WorldCIST’18 (Vol. 746,pp. 1345–1356). Advances in intelligent systems and computing. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77712-2_129.
  • Checa, D., & Bustillo, A. (2020). A review of immersive virtual reality serious games to enhance learning and training. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 79(9), 5501–5527. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-019-08348-9
  • Chen, J., Wang, M., Kirschner, P. A., & Tsai, -C.-C. (2018). The role of collaboration, computer use, learning environments, and supporting strategies in CSCL: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 88(6), 799–843. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654318791584
  • *Cheng, K. H., & Tsai, C. C. (2020). Students’ motivational beliefs and strategies, perceived immersion and attitudes towards science learning with immersive virtual reality: A partial least squares analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2140–2159. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12956
  • *Choi, K., Yoon, Y. J., Song, O. Y., & Choi, S. M. (2018). Interactive and immersive learning using 360° virtual reality contents on mobile platforms. Mobile Information Systems, 2018, 1–12. Article 2306031. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2306031
  • Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445–459. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543053004445
  • Coban, M., Bolat, Y. I., & Goksu, I. (2022). The potential of immersive virtual reality to enhance learning: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 36, 100452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100452
  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row.
  • Cummings, J. J., & Bailenson, J. N. (2016). How immersive is enough? A meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence. Media Psychology, 19(2), 272–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1015740
  • Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. J. (2010). What are the learning affordances of 3‐D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(1), 10–32. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x
  • Dede, C. J. (2009). Immersive interfaces for engagement and learning. science, 323(5910), 66–69. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167311
  • Dede, C. J., Jacobson, J., & Richards, J. (2017). Introduction: Virtual, augmented, and mixed realities in education. In D. Liu, C. Dede, R. Huang, & J. Richards (Eds.), Virtual, augmented, and mixed realities in education (pp. 1–16). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5490-7_1
  • Di Natale, A. F., Repetto, C., Riva, G., & Villani, D. (2020). Immersive virtual reality in K-12 and higher education: A 10-year systematic review of empirical research. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2006–2033. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13030
  • *Dunnagan, C. L., Dannenberg, D. A., Cuales, M. P., Earnest, A. D., Gurnsey, R. M., & Gallardo-Williams, M. T. (2020). Production and evaluation of a realistic immersive virtual reality organic chemistry laboratory experience: Infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(1), 258–262. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00705
  • *Edwards, B. I., Bielawski, K. S., Prada, R., & Cheok, A. D. (2019). Haptic virtual reality and immersive learning for enhanced organic chemistry instruction. Virtual Reality, 23(4), 363–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0345-4
  • Feng, Z., González, V. A., Amor, R., Spearpoint, M., Thomas, J., Sacks, R., Lovreglio, R., & Cabrera-Guerrero, G. (2020). An immersive virtual reality serious game to enhance earthquake behavioral responses and post-earthquake evacuation preparedness in buildings. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 45, 101118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2020.101118
  • *Ferrell, J. B., Campbell, J. P., McCarthy, D. R., McKay, K. T., Hensinger, M., Srinivasan, R., Zhao, X., Wurthmann, A., Li, J., & Schneebeli, S. T. (2019). Chemical exploration with virtual reality in organic teaching laboratories. Journal of Chemical Education, 96(9), 1961–1966. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00036
  • Filter, E., Eckes, A., Fiebelkorn, F., & Büssing, A. G. (2020). Virtual reality nature experiences involving wolves on YouTube: Presence, emotions, and attitudes in immersive and nonimmersive settings. Sustainability, 12(9), 3823. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12093823
  • *Fokides, E., & Kefallinou, M. (2020). Examining the impact of spherical videos in teaching endangered species/environmental education to primary school students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 19, 427–450. https://doi.org/10.28945/4612
  • Fowler, C. (2015). Virtual reality and learning: Where is the pedagogy? British Journal of Educational Technology, 46(2), 412–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12135
  • Freina, L., & Ott, M. (2015), April. A literature review on immersive virtual reality in education: State of the art and perspectives. The International Scientific Conference on elearning and Software for Education, Bucharest, Romania (Vol. 1). Carol I National Defence University.
  • *Fujiwara, D., Kellar, K., Humer, I., Pietroszek, K., & Eckhardt, C. (2020). (2020,June) VSEPR theory, an interactive and immersive virtual reality. 2020 6th International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN), San Luis Obispo, CA, USA
  • Garzón, J. An overview of twenty-five years of augmented reality in education. (2021). Multimodal Technologies and Interaction, 5(7), 37. Article 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/mti5070037
  • *Gochman, S. R., Morano Lord, M., Goyal, N., Chow, K., Cooper, B. K., Gray, L. K., Guo, S. X., Hill, K. A., Liao, S. K., Peng, S., Seong, H. J., Wang, A., Yoon, E. K., Zhang, S., Lobel, E., Tregubov, T., & Dominy, N. J. (2019). Tarsier goggles: A virtual reality tool for experiencing the optics of a dark-adapted primate visual system. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 12(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12052-019-0101-6
  • Grimm, P. (2010). Social desirability bias. In N. J. Sheth & K. N. Malhotra (Eds.), Wiley international encyclopedia of marketing (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444316568.wiem02057
  • Hamilton, D., McKechnie, J., Edgerton, E., & Wilson, C. (2021). Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: A systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design. Journal of Computers in Education, 8(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00169-2
  • Han, P.-H., Chen, Y.-S., Liu, I.-S., Jang, Y.-P., Tsai, L., Chang, A., & Hung, Y.-P. (2019). A compelling virtual tour of the Dunhuang cave with an immersive head-mounted display. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 40(1), 40–55. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCG.2019.2936753
  • *Han, Y., Shi, Y., Wang, J., Liu, Y., & Wang, Y. (2020). First-person perspective physics learning platform based on virtual reality. In P. Zaphiris & A. Ioannou (Eds.), Learning and collaboration technologies. human and technology ecosystems. HCII 2020. lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 12206, pp. 435–447). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50506-6_30
  • *Hsu, W. C., Tseng, C. M., & Kang, S. C. (2018). Using exaggerated feedback in a virtual reality environment to enhance behavior intention of water-conservation. Educational Technology and Society, 21(4), 187–203. https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-85055919979&partnerID=40&md5=1a3feb0a4545d6871755bf2a10882db3
  • *Huang, K. T., Ball, C., Francis, J., Ratan, R., Boumis, J., & Fordham, J. (2019). Augmented versus virtual reality in education: An exploratory study examining science knowledge retention when using augmented reality/virtual reality mobile applications. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 22(2), 105–110. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0150
  • *Huang, W., & . (2019). Examining the impact of head-mounted display virtual reality on the science self-efficacy of high schoolers. Interactive Learning Environments, 30(1), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2019.1641525
  • Jensen, L., & Konradsen, F. (2018). A review of the use of virtual reality head-mounted displays in education and training. Education and Information Technologies, 23(4), 1515–1529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-017-9676-0
  • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2018). Immersive VR and education: Embodied design principles that include gesture and hand controls. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 5, Article 81. https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2018.00081
  • *Jong, M. S. Y., Tsai, C. C., Xie, H., & Kwan-Kit Wong, F. (2020). Integrating interactive learner-immersed video-based virtual reality into learning and teaching of physical geography. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2064–2079. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12947
  • *Kader, S. N., Ng, W. B., Tan, S. W. L., & Fung, F. M. (2020). Building an interactive immersive virtual reality crime scene for future chemists to learn forensic science chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(9), 2651–2656. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00817
  • *Klingenberg, S., Jørgensen, M. L., Dandanell, G., Skriver, K., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2020). Investigating the effect of teaching as a generative learning strategy when learning through desktop and immersive VR: A media and methods experiment. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2115–2138. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13029
  • *Klippel, A., Zhao, J. Y., Jackson, K. L., La Femina, P., Stubbs, C., Wetzel, R., Blair, J., Wallgrun, J. O., & Oprean, D. (2019). Transforming earth science education through immersive experiences: Delivering on a long held promise. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(7), 1745–1771. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633119854025
  • *Klippel, A., Zhao, J., Oprean, D., Wallgrün, J. O., Stubbs, C., La Femina, P., & Jackson, K. L. (2019). The value of being there: Toward a science of immersive virtual field trips. Virtual Reality, 24(4), 753–770. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-019-00418-5
  • Krämer, N. C. (2017). The Immersive power of social interaction. In D. Liu, C. Dede, R. Huang, & J. Richards (Eds.), Virtual, augmented, and mixed realities in education (pp. 55–70). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5490-7_4
  • Krippendorff, K. (2018). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Sage publications.
  • Krupić, D., Žuro, B., & Corr, P. J. (2021). Anxiety and threat magnification in subjective and physiological responses of fear of heights induced by virtual reality. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 109720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109720
  • *Kwon, C. (2019). Verification of the possibility and effectiveness of experiential learning using HMD-based immersive VR technologies. Virtual Reality, 23(1), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-018-0364-1
  • *Lamb, R., Antonenko, P., Etopio, E., & Seccia, A. (2018). Comparison of virtual reality and hands on activities in science education via functional near infrared spectroscopy. Computers & Education, 124 , 14–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.05.014
  • *Lamb, R. L., Etopio, E., Hand, B., & Yoon, S. Y. (2019). Virtual reality simulation: Effects on academic performance within two domains of writing in science. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 28(4), 371–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-019-09774-y
  • Lee, K. M. (2004). Presence, explicated. Communication Theory, 14(1), 27–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00302.x
  • Lee, Y., Kim, S. K., & Eom, M.-R. (2020). Usability of mental illness simulation involving scenarios with patients with schizophrenia via immersive virtual reality: A mixed methods study. PloS one, 15(9), e0238437. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238437
  • *Liu, R., Wang, L., Lei, J., Wang, Q., & Ren, Y. (2020). Effects of an immersive virtual reality‐based classroom on students’ learning performance in science lessons. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2034–2049. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13028
  • Lohre, R., Bois, A. J., Athwal, G. S., & Goel, D. P. (2020). Improved complex skill acquisition by immersive virtual reality training: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, 102(6), e26. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.19.00982
  • *Lui, M., McEwen, R., & Mullally, M. (2020). Immersive virtual reality for supporting complex scientific knowledge: Augmenting our understanding with physiological monitoring. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2180–2198. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13022
  • *Madden, J., Pandita, S., Schuldt, J. P., Kim, B., Won, A. S., & Holmes, N. G. Ready student one: Exploring the predictors of student learning in virtual reality. (2020). PloS one, 15(3), e0229788. Article e0229788. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0229788
  • *Makransky, G., & Lilleholt, L. (2018). A structural equation modeling investigation of the emotional value of immersive virtual reality in education. Educational Technology Research and Development, 66(5), 1141–1164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-9581-2
  • *Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.007
  • *Makransky, G., Wismer, P., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). A gender matching effect in learning with pedagogical agents in an immersive virtual reality science simulation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35(3), 349–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12335
  • *Makransky, G., Borre‐Gude, S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Motivational and cognitive benefits of training in immersive virtual reality based on multiple assessments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 35(6), 691–707. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12375
  • *Makransky, G., Petersen, G. B., & Klingenberg, S. (2020). Can an immersive virtual reality simulation increase students’ interest and career aspirations in science? British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2079–2097. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12954
  • *Markowitz, D. M., Laha, R., Perone, B. P., Pea, R. D., & Bailenson, J. N. (2018). Immersive virtual reality field trips facilitate learning about climate change. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2364. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02364
  • Martín-Gutiérrez, J., Mora, C. E., Añorbe-Díaz, B., & González-Marrero, A. (2017). Virtual technologies trends in education. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(2), 469–486. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00626a
  • Mayer, R. E. (2005). Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (Vol. 41, pp. 31–48). Cambridge University Press.
  • *Meyer, O. A., Omdahl, M. K., & Makransky, G. (2019). Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment. Computers & Education, 140, 103603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103603
  • Mikropoulos, T. A., & Natsis, A. (2011). Educational virtual environments: A ten-year review of empirical research (1999–2009). Computers & Education, 56(3), 769–780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.10.020
  • *Nie, J., & Wu, B. (2020), July. Investigating the effect of immersive virtual reality and planning on the outcomes of simulation-based learning: A media and method experiment. 2020 IEEE 20th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), Tartu, Estonia. IEEE.
  • *Nowak, G. J., Evans, N. J., Wojdynski, B. W., Ahn, S. J. G., Len-Rios, M. E., Carera, K., Hale, S., & McFalls, D. (2020). Using immersive virtual reality to improve the beliefs and intentions of influenza vaccine avoidant 18-to-49-year-olds: Considerations, effects, and lessons learned. Vaccine, 38(5), 1225–1233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.11.009
  • *Papachristos, N. M., Vrellis, I., & Mikropoulos, T. A. (2017), July. A comparison between oculus rift and a low-cost smartphone VR headset: Immersive user experience and learning. 2017 IEEE 17th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT), Timisoara, Romania. IEEE.
  • *Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E. (2018). Learning science in immersive virtual reality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 785–797. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000241
  • *Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E. (2020). Cognitive and affective processes for learning science in immersive virtual reality. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(1), 226–241. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12482
  • Pellas, N., Dengel, A., & Christopoulos, A. (2020). A scoping review of immersive virtual reality in STEM education. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 13(4), 748–761. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2020.3019405
  • *Petersen, G. B., Klingenberg, S., Mayer, R. E., & Makransky, G. (2020). The virtual field trip: Investigating how to optimize immersive virtual learning in climate change education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 2099–2115. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12991
  • *Pirker, J., Holly, M. S., Hipp, P., Konig, C., Jeitler, D., & Gutl, C. (2018). Improving physics education through different immersive and engaging laboratory setups. M. E. Auer & T. Tsiatsos (Eds.), Interactive mobile communication technologies and learning (Vol. 725, pp. 443–454). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75175-7_44
  • *Pirker, J., Lesjak, I., & Gütl, C. (2017). An educational physics laboratory in mobile versus room scale virtual reality - A comparative study. International Journal of Online Engineering, 13(8), 106–120. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijoe.v13i08.7371
  • Pritchard, A. (2017). Ways of learning: Learning theories for the classroom. Routledge.
  • Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., Fromm, J., & Wohlgenannt, I. (2020). A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda. Computers & Education, 147, 103778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103778
  • *Rodrigues, I., & Prada, R. (2018), November. Virtual reality game to teach organic chemistry. VJ2018 — 10th Conference on Video Games Sciences and Arts, Porto, Portugal. i2ADS – Research Institute in Art, Design and Society. University of Porto, Faculty of Fine Arts.
  • *Rupp, M. A., Odette, K. L., Kozachuk, J., Michaelis, J. R., Smither, J. A., & McConnell, D. S. (2019). Investigating learning outcomes and subjective experiences in 360-degree videos. Computers & Education, 128, 256–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.015
  • *Rychkova, A., Korotkikh, A., Mironov, A., Smolin, A., Maksimenko, N., & Kurushkin, M. (2020). Orbital battleship: A multiplayer guessing game in immersive virtual reality. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(11), 4184–4188. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00866
  • Salvadori, A., Fusè, M., Mancini, G., Rampino, S., & Barone, V. (2018). Diving into chemical bonding: An immersive analysis of the electron charge rearrangement through virtual reality. Journal of Computational Chemistry, 39(31), 2607–2617. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.25523
  • Sanchez-Vives, M. V., & Slater, M. (2005). From presence to consciousness through virtual reality. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 6(4), 332–339. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1651
  • Šašinka, Č., Stachoň, Z., Sedlák, M., Chmelík, J., Herman, L., Kubíček, P., Šašinková, A., Doležal, M., Tejkl, H., & Urbánek, T. (2019). Collaborative immersive virtual environments for education in geography. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 8(1), Article 3.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8010003
  • Savickiene, I. (2010). Conception of learning outcomes in the bloom’s taxonomy affective domain. Quality of Higher Education, 7, 37–59. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ900258
  • Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories an educational perspective sixth edition. Pearson.
  • *Sharma, L., Jin, R., Prabhakaran, B., & Gans, M. (2018), April. LearnDNA: An interactive VR application for learning DNA structure. Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Interactive and Spatial Computing, Richardson, Texas. New York, NY, United States: Association for Computing Machinery.
  • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres.1997.6.6.603
  • Slater, M., & Sanchez-Vives, M. V. (2016). Enhancing our lives with immersive virtual reality. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 3, Article 74. https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2016.00074
  • Slater, M. (2017). Implicit learning through embodiment in immersive virtual reality. In D. Liu, C. Dede, R. Huang, & J. Richards (Eds.), Virtual, augmented, and mixed realities in education (pp. 19–33). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5490-7_2
  • *Southgate, E., Smith, S. P., Cividino, C., Saxby, S., Kilham, J., Eather, G., Scevak, J., Summerville, D., Buchanan, R., & Bergin, C. (2019). Embedding immersive virtual reality in classrooms: Ethical, organisational and educational lessons in bridging research and practice. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 19, 19–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2018.10.002
  • Suh, A., & Prophet, J. (2018). The state of immersive technology research: A literature analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 86, 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.04.019
  • *Sun, J., Li, H., Liu, Z. H., Cai, S., & Li, X. W. (2017). An empirical case on integration of immersive virtual environment into primary school science class. In W. Chen, J. C. Yang, A. F. M. Ayub, S. L. Wong, & A. Mitrovic (Eds.), Proceedings of the 25th international conference on computers in education, Christchurch, New Zealand (pp. 566–575).
  • *Thompson, M., Wang, A., Bilgin, C. U., Anteneh, M., Roy, D., Tan, P., Eberhart, R., & Klopfer, E. (2020). Influence of virtual reality on high school students’ conceptions of cells. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 26(8), 929–946. https://doi.org/10.3897/jucs.2020.050
  • *Uz-Bilgin, C., Thompson, M., & Anteneh, M. (2020). Exploring how role and background influence through analysis of spatial dialogue in collaborative problem-solving games. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 29(6), 813–826. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-020-09861-5
  • Villena-Taranilla, R., Tirado-Olivares, S., Cózar-Gutiérrez, R., & González-Calero, J. A. (2022). Effects of virtual reality on learning outcomes in K-6 education: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 35, 100434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100434
  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
  • *Webster, R. (2016). Declarative knowledge acquisition in immersive virtual learning environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 24(6), 1319–1333. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.994533
  • Winn, W. (1993). A conceptual basis for educational applications of virtual reality. Technical Publication R-93-9, Human Interface Technology Laboratory of the Washington Technology Center, Seattle: University of Washington. http://www.hitl.washington.edu/projects/education/winn/winn-paper.html~
  • *Won, M., Mocerino, M., Tang, K.-S., Treagust, D. F., & Tasker, R. (2019). Interactive immersive virtual reality to enhance students’ visualisation of complex molecules. In M. Schultz, S. Schmid, & G. A. Lawrie (Eds.), Research and practice in chemistry education (pp. 51–64). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6998-8_4
  • Won, M., Ungu, D. A. K., Matovu, H., Tsai, -C.-C., Treagust, D. F., Park, J., Mocerino, M., & Tasker, R. (2022). Diverse approaches to learning with immersive virtual reality identified from a systematic review. Computers & Education. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104701
  • Wu, B., Yu, X., & Gu, X. (2020). Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head‐mounted displays on learning performance: A meta‐analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 1991–2005. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13023
  • *Yu, Z., & Lin, X. (2020). Impact of environmental education with VR equipment on learning performance and environmental identity. In Z. Xu, R. Parizi, M. Hammoudeh, & O. Loyola-González (Eds.), Cyber Security Intelligence and Analytics. CSIA 2020. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing (Vol. 1147, pp. 3–9). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43309-3_1
  • *Zhang, L., Bowman, D. A., & Jones, C. N. (2019), September. Exploring effects of interactivity on learning with interactive storytelling in immersive virtual reality. 2019 11th International Conference on Virtual Worlds and Games for Serious Applications (VS-Games), Vienna, Austria. IEEE.
  • *Zhao, J., LaFemina, P., Carr, J., Sajjadi, P., Wallgrün, J. O., & Klippel, A. (2020), March. Learning in the field: Comparison of desktop, immersive virtual reality, and actual field trips for place-based STEM education. 2020 IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR), Atlanta, GA, USA. IEEE.
  • *Zhao, J., Lin, L., Sun, J., & Liao, Y. (2020). Using the summarizing strategy to engage learners: Empirical evidence in an immersive virtual reality environment. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 29(5), 473–482. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-020-00499-w
  • *Zinchenko, Y. P., Khoroshikh, P. P., Sergievich, A. A., Smirnov, A. S., Tumyalis, A. V., Kovalev, A. I., Gutnikov, S. A., & Golokhvast, K. S. (2020). Virtual reality is more efficient in learning human heart anatomy especially for subjects with low baseline knowledge. New Ideas in Psychology, 59, 100786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2020.100786