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Articles

Industry, cleanliness and godliness: sources for and problems in the history of scientific and technical education and the working classes, 1850-1910

Pages 87-128 | Published online: 26 Mar 2008

References

  • Brock , W. H. 1975 . From Liebig to Nuffield: a bibliography of the history of science education, 1839-1974 . Studies in Science Education , 2 : 67 – 99 .
  • Hurt , John . 1975 . Education and the working classes . ulletin of the Society for the Study of Labour History , 30 : 42 – 54 . 31 (1975), 20-44. This bibliography is being updated and will appear in 1980 in a History of Education Society publication.
  • Macleod , Roy and Moseley , Russell . 1978 . Breadth, Depth and Excellence: Sources and Problems in the History of University Science Education in England, 1850-1914 . Studies in Science Education , 5 : 85 – 106 .
  • Stephen Rose, The Wider Issues. Units 16 and 17, AST 281. Science and the rise of technology since 1800 (Bletchley 1973). Hilary and Stephen Rose, Science and Society (Harmondsworth 1969). Leslie Sklair, Organised knowledge: a sociological view of science and technology (London 1973).
  • Ruth Hodgkinson, Science and Public Health, Unit 5. AST 281. Science and the rise of technology (Bletchley 1973). Colin Russell and David C. Goodman, Scientific organisation and Communication, AST 281. Science and the Rise of Technology (Bletchley 1973).
  • Silver , Harold . 1977 . Aspects of Neglect: The Strange Case of Victorian Popular Education . Oxford Review of Education , 3 ( 1 ) : 57 – 69 .
  • Armytage , W. H.G. 1956-7 . Some sources for the history of technical education in England . British Journal of Educational Studies , 5 : 72 – 79 . 159-165 and ibid 6, (1957), 67-73. J.F. Kerr, Some sources for the History of the teaching of science in England. British Journal of Educational Studies, 7, (1959), 149-160.
  • T. Kelly, A history of adult education in Great Britain from the Middle Ages to the Twentieth Century (Liverpool 1970). Dorothy M. Turner, A history of science teaching in England (London 1927). W.H.G. Armytage, Four Hundred Years of English Education (Cambridge 1964, 2nd ed. 1970). D.S.L. Cardwell, The Organisation of Science in England (London 1957, 2nd ed. 1972). Colin Russell and David Goodman, Scientific Organisation and Communication (Bletchley 1973). Michael Argles, From South Kensington to Robbins: an account of English Technical and Scientific Education since 1851 (London 1964). G.W. Roderick and M.D. Stephens, Education and industry in the nineteenth century: The English Disease? (London 1978). Peter Gordon and Denis Lawton, Curriculum change in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London 1978). Stephen Cotgrove, Technical Education and Social Change (London 1958). Robert H. Kargon, Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and Expertise (Manchester 1977).
  • A list of theses appears biennially in Studies in Science Education. (a) BIOGRAPHY C. Bibby, T.H. Huxley: his place in education, Ph.D.thesis (London 1955). A.J. Flintham, The contribution of Arthur Smithells, F.R.S. (1860-1939) to the development of science education in England, M.Ed.thesis (Leeds 1974). W. Hall, The teaching of science in England during the latter half of the 19th century and Huxley's influence on its development, M.A.thesis (Sheffield 1931). N. Lingard, The scientific and educational influence of Sir Henry Roscoe, 1835-1915, with particular reference to Manchester, M.A.thesis (Liverpool 1970). A. Potts, The Educational work of Sir Bernhard Samuelson, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1969). G.W. Robinson, William Ellis and his work for education, M.A.thesis (London 1919). Christine Stephenson, The educational ideas of H. G. Wells with particular reference to the contribution of science, M.Ed.thesis (Leeds 1974). Mary E. Tasker, J. C. Buckmaster 1819-1908. A study of his life and work, M.Ed.thesis (Bath 1974). Donald L. Thompson, The development of science education during the second half of the nineteenth century with special reference to the influence of John Tyndall, M.A.thesis (Sheffield 1955). Rosamund A. Wilson, T.H. Huxley: his influence on the teaching of biological sciences in British Schools, M.Ed, dissertation (Nottingham 1974). (b) THE GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION G.D. Bishop, A history of the teaching of physics in England from 1650-1850, Ph.D.thesis (London 1959). J.P. Bremmer, Some aspects of the teaching of the biological sciences in English schools during the second half of the 19th century, M.A. thesis (London 1955). J.M. Brooks, The history and teaching of physical science in secondary schools in England during the 19th century and first part of the 20th century, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1958). W.E. Flude, The development of science teaching in English ‘senior’ and secondary modern schools, M.Ed.thesis (Leicester 1965). T.B. Green, Physical science teaching in English schools from 1850-1970, M.Sc.thesis (Sheffield 1971). W.H. Hudspeth, The history of the teaching of biological subjects, including nature study in the English schools since 1660, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1963). D.W. Jones, The background and development of science teaching in Welsh intermediate schools 1897-1916, M.Ed.thesis (Bangor 1974). R.B. Kelham, Science education in Ireland and Scotland, 1750-1900, Ph.D.thesis (Manchester 1968). Richard M. Luker, Science education under the school boards with particular reference to London and Birmingham, M.Phil.thesis (London 1978). R.M. Macdonald, The history of the teaching of biological sciences in English Grammar Schools 1850-1952, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1953). P.G. Martin, A history of general studies, science and of outdoor biology, M.Ed.thesis (Bangor 1976). W.J. Parrish, A survey of the history of science teaching in English schools since 1870, M.Sc.thesis (London 1926). A. Samad, A short thesis on the origin and development of science teaching in English Schools, M.A.thesis (Leeds 1930). D.J.S. Sutherland, The history of the teaching of science in Scottish schools, Ph.D.thesis (St. Andrews 1939). F.G. Small, A history of science teaching in English schools since 1870, M.Sc.thesis (London 1926). D.M. Turner, History of science teaching in England, Ph.D.thesis (London 1928). P.S. Uzzell, The development of science teaching, with special reference to chemistry, Ph.D.thesis (Exeter 1975). J.A. Hall, An historical survey of science instruction in Liverpool, M.A.thesis (Liverpool 1930). (c) WORKING CLASS EDUCATIONAL TRADITIONS, ADULT AND FURTHER EDUCATION T.D. Buxton, The development of the theory and practice of Further Education in England since the Act of 1870, M.A.thesis (London 1955). K. Dighton, Some aspects of the historical development of further education, M.Ed.thesis (London 1977). T.B. Graham, Some aspects of working class adult education in 19th century Carlisle, M.Phil.thesis (Nottingham 1972). N.A. Jepson, A critical analysis of the origin and development of the Oxford and Cambridge University Extension Movement between 1873-1902, with special reference to the West Riding of Yorkshire, Ph.D.thesis (Leeds 1955). D. Leigh, Further education in Carlisle in the nineteenth century, M.Ed.thesis (Newcastle 1967). K.A. Percy, The development of State aided evening schools for adults, 1870-1902, M.A.thesis (Nottingham 1969). H.J. Price, Adult education in Bristol during the Nineteenth Century, M.A.thesis (Bristol 1965). I.J.D. Steele, A study of the education of the working class in Stockport during the nineteenth century, M.A.thesis (Sheffield 1967). W.B. Stephens, The development of adult education in Warrington in the nineteenth century, M.A.thesis (Exeter 1958). S. Sumpner, The London School Board and the development of evening education, 1870-1893, M.A.thesis (London 1953). D.H. Thomas, John Scott Lidgett, 1854-1953, and the education of the people, Ph.D.thesis (London 1960). M. Turner, The miners’ search for self improvement: the history of evening classes in the Rhondda Valley from 1862-1914, M.A.thesis (Cardiff 1966). (d) ELEMENTARY EDUCATION General Studies: R.D. Bramwell, Elementary School Work, 1875-1925, Ph.D.thesis (Durham 1958). M. Goldstrom, The changing social content of elementary education as reflected in school books in use in England, 1808-1870, Ph.D.thesis (Birmingham 1968). F. Smith, Technical drawing in public elementary schools, 1839-1939, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1964). G.D. Taylor, A study of the pressures influencing the content of the elementary school curriculum, M.Phil.thesis (London 1973). Local studies: D.H.B. Andrews, Elementary education in Lewisham, 1870-1903, M.A.thesis (London 1965). J.W. Butler, Public elementary education in Dartford, Kent, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, M.A.thesis (London 1956). A.M. Davies, Education for working class children in Barnsley during the nineteenth century with particular reference to the Barnsley School Board, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1969). R.C. Kelsey, English Public Elementary Education 1862-1902 with special reference to Blackburn, Lancashire, M. A. thesis (London 1973). P. Liddle, The development of elementary education in Walsall 1862-1902, M.A.thesis (London 1967). J.D. Mellor, The Policy of the London School Board in relation to education in Standard Five and above, M.A.thesis (Liverpool 1969). A.F. Taylor, The Birmingham School Board, 1870-1903, M.A.thesis (Birmingham 1955). Industrial and Ragged Schools: R.J. Couch, The history of reformatory and approved schools, 1850-1967, M.Phil.thesis (London 1971). W. Duffy, The early years of the Liverpool industrial school, Kirkdale, M.Ed.thesis (Liverpool 1976). A.M. Ross, The care and education of pauper children in England and Wales 1834-1896, Ph.D.thesis (London 1955). H.A. Schuff, The perishing and dangerous classes: efforts to deal with the neglected, vagrant and delinquent juveniles in England, 1840-1875, Ph.D.thesis (Columbia 1971). G.T. Wiley, Educating the children of England’s labouring poor 1850-1865, Ph.D.thesis (Case Western Reserve 1965). (e) TECHNICAL EDUCATION National studies: P.L.P. Clark, The Education Act of 1902: background, scope and legislative problems, Ph.D.thesis (London 1964). P.R. Sharp, The public financing of secondary and technical education in Victorian England, Ph.D.thesis (Leeds 1973). F.E. Foden, A history of technical examinations in England to 1918, with special reference to the examination work of the City and Guilds of London Institute, Ph.D.thesis (Reading 1961). P. Keane, The evolution of technical education in 19th century England, Ph.D.thesis (Bath 1970). P.E. Harrison, The origin and development of the administration of technical education in England, cl850-1904, M.A.thesis (London 1959). Local studies: P.H. Andrews, Post elementary education in the area of the London Technical Education Board 1893-1904, M.A.thesis (London 1958). H.D. Briscoe, The history of technical education in Nottinghamshire 1851-1902, M.A.thesis (Sheffield 1952). D.M. Brooks, Vocational education and training in Northamptonshire 1850-1956: a comparative study of post school education and the major industries in Northamptonshire borough and county, M.Ed.thesis (Leicester 1970). A.F. Chadwick, The Derby Mechanics’ Institute, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1971). M.M. Collison, The development of technical education in Essex, M.A.thesis (London 1955). A. Lloyd Davies, The Burnley Mechanics’ Institute in the 19th Century, M.Ed.thesis (Leeds 1978). T. Evans, The Mechanics’ Institutes of South Wales, Ph.D.thesis (Sheffield 1965). W.G. Hall, The provision of technical education in Sunderland prior to 1908, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1964). J.P. Hemming, The Mechanics’ Institute Movement in the textile districts of Lancashire and Yorkshire in the second half of the 19th century, Ph.D.thesis (Leeds 1975). H.P. Henigan, A history of education in Stockton on Tees with particular reference to technical education, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1964). P. Keane, The development of technical education in Somerset during the 19th century, M.A.thesis (Bristol 1965). N. Kemp, Scientific and technical education in Liverpool 1851-1902, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1971). H. Lewis, The development of technical education in Huddersfield with special reference to the textile industry, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1971). B. Lloyd, The development of education in Swindon with particular reference to the influence and requirements of the railway works and other local industries, M.A.thesis (Bristol 1954). M. Lucas, The growth of technical education in Darlington 1825-1915, M.Ed.thesis (Durham 1967). H. Lewis, The development of technical education in Huddersfield with special reference to the textile industry, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1971). C.K. Lysons, The development of technical education in St. Helens, 1852-1902, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1975).D. McCaughley, The technical instruction committee in Liverpool from 1890-1903, M.Ed.thesis (Liverpool 1974). M.J. Millwood, The development of technical education in Leicester 1860-1938, M.Ed.thesis (Leicester 1968).R.F. Palmer, The development of technical education in the borough of Reading, 1825-1935, M.Phil.thesis (Reading 1975). J. Popple, The Yorkshire Union of Mechanics’ Institutes, M.A.thesis (Sheffield 1959). H.P. Reilly, The history of technical education in Rotherham since 1850, M.A.thesis (Sheffield 1952). E. Riley, Secondary and technical education in Manchester (1851-1914) with special reference to the work of the public authorities, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1966). G.W. Roderick, Science and technical training in Liverpool and its relevance to industrial Merseyside, 1870-1914, M.A. thesis (Liverpool 1972). P.G. Rossington, The history of Gloucester technical college, M.A.thesis (Bristol 1962). P.R. Sharp, The work of the technical instruction committees, 1889-1902 (with special reference to the West Riding, Lancashire and Northamptonshire), M.Ed.thesis (Leeds 1969). J.V. Smith, The Dundee Watt Institution 1824-1849, M.Phil. thesis (Dundee 1973). T.A. Smith, The effect of national developments on technical education in Bury, Oldham and Preston before 1889, M.A.thesis (Liverpool 1968). T.A. Smith, Some aspects of the development of technical education in Lancashire, 1825-1889, Ph.D. thesis (Leeds 1975). J.R. Soar, The historical development of technical and vocational education within the area of the County Borough of West Ham since 1850, M.A.thesis (London 1965). P.A. Stern, The early development of industrial education in Manchester, M.Sc.thesis (Manchester 1966). C.B. Thomas, The History of Norwood Technical College, M.Ed.thesis (London 1975). CM. Turner, The development of Mechanics’ Institutes in Warwickshire, Worcestershire and Staffordshire, 1825-1890: a regional survey, M.Ed.thesis (Leicester 1965). J.H. Williams, The Crewe Mechanics’ Institution, 1843-1913, M.Ed.thesis (Manchester 1969). (f) PRESSURES AND MOVEMENTS J.N. Benn, Aspects of the Royal Commission on Science Instruction and the Advancement of Science (Devonshire) 1870-1875 with some reference to the role of T. H. Huxley, B.Phil.thesis (Hull 1976). J. Blanchet, Public opinion and technical education in England, 1867-1906. (A study of the awakening of English opinion to the importance of scientific research and technical education as factors of economic and military power.), D.Phil.thesis (Oxford 1953). E.J.T. Brennan, The influence of Sidney and Beatrice Webb on English Education 1892-1903, M.A.thesis (Sheffield 1959). W.P. McCann, Trade Unionist, Cooperative and Socialist Organisations in relation to popular education, 1870-1902, Ph.D.thesis (Manchester 1965). J.J. McGlashan, German influence on aspects of English educational and social reform, 1867-1908, Ph.D.thesis (Hull 1973). N.H. Mikhail, The contribution of the British Association to education in England and selected countries abroad, Ph.D.thesis (London 1964). J.L. Monoghan, Some influences and attitudes which affected the provision and development of industrial education between 1850 and 1889, M.Ed.thesis (Birmingham 1965). P.W. Musgrave, Technical change, education and the British iron and steel industries since 1860, Ph.D.thesis (London 1964). D.S. Nicholas, Science, culture and curriculum in mid 19th century thought, two case studies, M.Ed.thesis (London 1977). A. Price, Humanities versus science in mid 19th century educational thought in England, Ph.D.thesis (Belfast 1957). D.R. Pugh, Public opinion and the 1902 Education Act, M.Ed.thesis (Nottingham 1964). J.A. Purton, The influence of industry and commerce on the development of educational facilities in England and Wales, 1830-1870, M.Sc.thesis (London 1958). G.A. Ross, The influence of the British Association for the Advancement of Science on Science education, B.Phil.thesis (York 1976). N.W. Saffin, The sciences and humanities in English grammar schools in relation to the climate of opinion 1805-1904, M.A.thesis (London 1956). D.G. Taylor, The German example and English science education in the 19th century, M.Ed.thesis (Dundee 1976). E.J. Thomas, Views on science education 1900-1960 with particular reference to the primary school, M.Ed.thesis (London 1977). (f) ORGANISATIONS G.I. Birley, A study of the content of examinations in chemistry in the 19th century with reference to the Department of Science and Art and some related bodies and subjects, M.Ed.thesis (Leicester 1979). G.L. Butterworth, The influence of the Science and Art department in the development of scientific education in English schools and evening institutions during the latter half of the 19th century, M.Ed.thesis (Leeds 1959). H. Butterworth, The development and influence of the department of Science and Art 1853-1899, Ph.D.thesis (Sheffield 1968). C. Duke, The department of science and art: politics and administration to 1864, Ph.D.thesis (London 1966). M.E. Hipwell, Summary of the work of the science division of the Department of Science and Art, 1853-1899, M.Ed.thesis (Nottingham 1963). A.S. Levine, The politics of taste: the science and art department of Great Britain, 1852-1973, Ph.D.thesis (Wisconsin 1972). K.W. Luckhurst, Some aspects of the history of the Society of Arts, London, 1754-1952, Ph.D.thesis (London 1956). A. Wadlington, The work of the Leeds School Board under the regulations of the department of Science and Art, M.Ed.thesis (Leeds 1965).
  • Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of Popular Education in England, Chairman the Duke of Newcastle, 1861. Report of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science, Chairman the Duke of Devonshire, 8 volumes, 1872-1875. (The second report contains evidence on working class science education.) Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction, Chairman Bernhard Samuelson, 1882-1884. Report of the Royal Commission on the working of the Elementary Education Acts, Chairman Lord Cross, 1888. Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, TheBryce Report, Chairman James Bryce, 1895. Report of the Select Committee appointed to enquire into the provisions for giving Instructions in Theoretical and Applied Science to the Industrial classes, Chairman Bernhard Samuelson, 1868.
  • Guide to the contents of the Public Record Office. 3 volumes. Revised ed. (London 1960).
  • The manuscript minutes and other records of the Committee of the D.S.A. are in the P.R.O. Printed reports were published annually and are held by a number of Reference Libraries.
  • Poole’s Index to Periodical Literature 1802-1906. 6 volumes compiled by William, F. Poole is a useful starting point but the titles are sometimes abbreviated inaccurately and correspondence is not indexed. No dates are given, only volume numbers. The Record is not indexed. No newspapers are indexed. The Times has an excellent index. The Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals 1824-1900 is also useful.
  • Suggestive use of working class biographies has been made by R.D. Altick, The English Common Reader: a social history of the mass reading public (Chicago 1957), and J.F.C. Harrison, Underground education in the 19th century (Leeds 1971).
  • Ann Christopher’s An index to 19th century British educational biography. Education Libraries Bulletin, Supplement 10 (1965), is a useful, if outdated, starting point. The Mundella papers are in Sheffield University Library, the Huxley papers are in Imperial College, London, the Playfair papers are in the Bodleian Library, and the Devonshire collection is at Chatsworth. Sir H.E. Roscoe, The life and experiences of Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, written by himself (London 1906). Silvanus P. Thompson, Apprenticeship, scientific and unscientific (London 1879). Henry Solly, These Eighty years (London 1893). W.N.W. & S. J.C., Sketches from the life of Edward Frankland (London 1902).
  • See Note 9a for thesis literature. W.H.G. Armytage, A.J. Mundella (London 1951), F. Foden, Philip Magnus, Victorian educational pioneer (London 1970). A.J. Meadows, Science and Controversy: a biography of Sir Norman Lockyer (London 1972). Jean Russell Gebbett, Henslow of Hitcham: botanist, educationalist and clergyman (Lavenham 1977). C. Bibby, T.H. Huxley, scientist, humanist and educator (London 1959). G. van Praagh, H.E. Armstrong and Science Education (London 1973). W.H. Brock, H.E. Armstrong and the teaching of science, 1880-1930 (Cambridge 1973).
  • J.G. Crowther, Statesmen of Science (London 1965), contains brief biographies of the Prince Consort, the Duke of Devonshire, Lyon Playfair and Alexander Strange. J. Blanchet, Public opinion … (op. cit.), note 9, contains brief biographies of a number of leading scientists and working class leaders active in the Technical Education movement. J.P. Hemming, The Mechanics’ Institutes … (op.cit.), note 9, contains brief biographies of teachers and others active in the Union of Cheshire and Lancashire Institutes. W.H.G. Armytage, J.F.D. Donnelly: Pioneer in Vocational Education, Vocational Aspect, 2,1950, 6-21. Nancy Ball, Richard Dawes and the Teaching of Common Things, Educational Review, 17, 1964, 59-68. C. Bibby, T.H. Huxley and technical education, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 14,1965,810-820. J.P. Bremner, George Combe: Pioneer of Physiology teaching, School Science Review, 38,1956, 48-52. E.J.T. Brennan, Sidney Webb and the London Technical Education Board, Vocational Aspect, 11,1959,85-96, ibid. 12,1960, 27-43, ibid. 13, 1961, 146-171, ibid. 14,1962, 56-76.1.R. Cowan, Sir William Mather and Education, Vocational Aspect, 21,1969,39-46. A.J. Flintham, The Contribution of Arthur Smithells, F.R.S., to Science Education, History of Education, 6, 3, 1977, 195-208. F.E. Foden, Rev. James Booth, Pioneer of Education, Vocational Aspect, 20, 1968, 127-136. F.E. Foden, Rev. Arthur Rigg: Pioneer of Workshop Practice, Vocational Aspect, 11,1959, 105-118. F.E. Foden, Sir Philip Magnus and the City and Guilds of London Institute, Vocational Aspect, 14, 1961, 102-116. G.M. Holmes, The Parliamentary and Ministerial career of A.H.D. Acland, 1886-1897, Durham Research Review, 15, 1964, 128-139. A.J. Jenkinson, John Berry of Bolton: the father of technology classes in Bolton and in all England, Vocational Aspect, 21,1969, 95-. R.V. Jones, Sir Lyon Playfair, Nature, 200, 1963,105-6. David Layton, The Educational Work of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, History of Education, 5, 1, 1976, 25-40. David Layton, Founding fathers of Science Education: Britain’s First Science H.M.I., Rev. Henry Moseley, New Scientist, 75,18th August, 1977,405-406. David Layton, Founding fathers of Science Education: a Victorian Showman of Science, John Henry Pepper: Science for Fun and Function, New Scientist, 75,1st September, 1977, 538-539. Diana E. Manuel, H.E. Armstrong: a Pioneer of Reform in Science teaching, Durham Research Review, 33, (1974), 949-954. J. Marshall, John Henry Reynolds: Pioneer of Technical Education in Manchester, Vocational Aspect, 35, (1964), 176-196. Mary Tasker, Founding Fathers of Science Education, Science Education for everyone: John Charles Buckmaster, New Scientist, 75, (25th August, 1977). D. Thompson, John Tyndall, 1820-1893: a Study in Vocational Enterprise, Vocational Aspect, 18,1957,38-46. D. Thompson, H.E. Roscoe, Vocational Aspect, 38, (1965). C.A. Russell, Edward Frankland, the first president, Chemistry in Britain, 13, (1977), 4-7,20. J.W. Tibbie, Sir Percy Nunn 1870-1944, British Journal of Educational Studies, 10, (1961), 58-75. G.W. Tracey, George Combe: Pioneer in Curriculum Reform, Durham Research Review, 25, (1970), 477-482
  • Reid , T. Wemyss . 1900 . Memoirs and correspondence of Sir Lyon Playfair London Leonard Huxley, Life and Letters of T.H. Huxley (London 1903). J.S. and H.G. Thompson, Silvanus P. Thompson (London 1920). K. Snowden, The Master Spinner: a life of Sir S. Swire Smith (London 1921). B.M. Allen, William Garnett (Cambridge 1933). E. Thorpe, Sir H.E. Roscoe (London 1916). H.G. Hutchinson, Life of Sir John Lubbock, LordAvebury (London 1914).
  • A number of sources exist for the work of such science teachers, e.g. W.J. Harrison, science demonstrator of the Birmingham School Board contributed to Nature and other journals. See Pedagogy, Examinations and Codification infra. J.C. Buckmaster, A village politician: the life story of John Buckley (London 1897), is the autobiography of a famous D.S.A. organiser and teacher. F.F. Potter, Educational journey: memories of fifty years in public education (London 1949).
  • Wells , H. G. 1963 . The Making of the English Working Class London
  • Young , M. F.D. , ed. 1970 . Knowledge and Control: new directions in the sociology of education London M.F.D. Young, Notes for a sociology of science education, Studies in Science Education, 1974,1,51-60. M.F.D. Young, The schooling of science in Geoff Whitty and M.F.D. Young, Explorations in the politics of School Knowledge (Driffield 1976). David Layton, Science for the people: the origins of the school science curriculum in England (London 1973).
  • Douglas , Mary . 1970 . Natural Symbols London Basil Bernstein, On the classification and framing of educational knowledge in M.F.D. Young (ed.), Knowledge and Control (op.cit.), note 22. P. Bourdieu, Systems of Education and Systems of Thought in M.F.D. Young (ed.), Knowledge and Control (op.cit.), note 22. Mary Douglas, Implicit Meanings: essays in anthropology (London 1975). E. Durkheim and M. Mauss, Primitive Classification (London 1963).
  • Atkinson , Paul and Delamont , Sara . 1977 . “ Mock ups and cock ups: the stage management of guided discovery instruction ” . In School Experience Edited by: Woods , P. and Hammersley , Martyn . Croom Helm
  • Gosden , P.H. J.H. 1969 . How they were taught; An anthology of contemporary accounts of learning and teaching in England, 1800-1950 Oxford Chapter 5, The growth of scientific and technical studies in schools and colleges.
  • Joan , Simon . 1979 . “ Childhood in Earlier 17th Century England ” . In Informal Agencies of Education Edited by: Dent , K. Leicester Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Poor: Oral History (Oxford 1978). Cheryl Parsons, Schools in an Urban Community: a study of Carbrook, 1870-1865 (London 1978).
  • Tylecote , Mabel . 1957 . The Mechanics’ Institutes of Lancashire and Yorkshire Manchester J.F.C. Harrison, Living and Learning, 1790-1960: a study in the history of the English adult education movement(London 1961). J.P. Hemming, The Mechanics’ Institute movement …(op.cit.), note 9.
  • Thernstrom , Stephan and Sennett , Richard . 1969 . Nineteenth Century Cities: essays in the New Urban History , Connecticut : New Haven .
  • Lazarson , Marvin . 1971 . Orgins of the Urban School: Public education in Massachusetts, 1870-1915 , Massachusetts : Cambridge . Arthur Wirth, Education in the Technological Society: the Vocational-Liberal Studies Controversy in the early 20th century (San Francisco 1972).
  • Katz , M. B. 1972 . Who went to school? . istory of Education Quarterly , 12 : 432 – 454 . M.B. Katz and Ian Davey, Youth and early industrialisation in a Canadian city in John Demos and Sarane S. Boocock. Turning Points: historical and sociological essays on the family (Chicago, University of Chicago 1978). M.B. Katz and Ian Davey, School Attendance and Early Industrialisation in a Canadian City: a multivariate analysis, History of Education Quarterly, 18, 3, (1978), 271-293
  • Scudamore , C. N.J. “ The pupils of the Bridge Street Higher Grade School, Birmingham, 1892-1893 ” . In New Approaches to the study of popular education, 1851-1902 Edited by: Lowe , Roy . Leicester
  • G. W. Roderick and W. B. Stephens, Education and Industry … (op.cit., note 8) chapter 7.
  • P. Keane, The evolution of technical education … (op.cit.) note 9. J. Blanchet, Public opinion and technical education … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Cole , J. D.H. and Postgate , R. 1949 . The Common People 1746-1946, , 2nd London now has an excellent bibliography revised by Royden Harrison in 1966. Harold Perkin, The Origins of Modern English Society, 1780-1880, (London 1969). Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement (London 1959).
  • Silver , Harold . 1973 . Education and the labour movement: a critical review of the literature . History of Education , 2 Brian Simon, Education and the Labour Movement 1870-1900 (London 1965). W.P. McCann, Trade Unionist, Cooperative and Socialist Organisations … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Bowles , Samuel and Gintis , Herbert . 1975 . Schooling in Capitalist America London
  • Foster , John . 19740 . Class struggle and the industrial revolution: early industrial capitalism in three English towns London
  • Shapin , S. and Barnes , B. 1976 . “ Science, Nature and control: interpreting Mechanics' Institutes ” . In Schooling and Capitalism: A Sociological Reader Edited by: Dale , R. London
  • Hobsbawm , E. 1977 . “ The Labour Aristocracy in 19th Century Britain in E. Hobsbawm ” . In Labouring Men: Studies in the History of Labour Edited by: Crossick , G. London The Lower Middle Class in Britain (London 1977).
  • Gray , R. Q. 1978 . The Labour Aristocracy in Victorian Edinburgh London G. Crossick, An Artisan Elite in Victorian Society: Kentish London 1840-1880 (London 1978).
  • Dobbs , A. E. 1919 . Education and Social Movements 1700-1850 London
  • T. Kelly, A history of adult education in Great Britain (op.cit.) note 8.
  • A leading exponent of the entertainment value of science was J.H. Pepper, David Layton, A Victorian Showman of Science (op.cit) note 17. The middle classes also enjoyed sceintific entertainment, provided by the Royal Institution, for example.
  • Carlisle , Richard . 1972 . “ An Address to the Men of Science; William Lovett, Chartism: A new organisation of the people ” . In The Radical Tradition in Britain Edited by: Simon , Brian . London
  • For contrasting views of the Mechanics' Institute movement see S. Shapin and B. Barnes, Science, nature and control: interpreting Mechanics' Institutes, (op.cit.) note 38. Ianlnkster, The Social Context of an Educational Movement: A Revisionist Approach to the English Mechanics' Institutes, 1820-1850, Oxford Review of Education 3, 1, (1977), 277-306.
  • J.F.C. Harrison, Underground Education … (op.cit.) note 14, says ‘it is not difficult to locate 50-100 titles’. W.E. Adams, Memoirs of a Social Atom (London 1903). W. Anderson, Self Made Men, 2nd edition (London 1865). Anonymous, Biography of Self Taught Men (London 1852). Joseph Arch, The Story of his Life, told by himself (London 1898). M.K. Ashby, Joseph Ashby of Tysoe 1859-1919 (Cambridge 1961). Samuel Bamford, Early Days (London 1849). Samuel Bamford, Passages in the life of a radical (London 1844). Joseph Barker, Life of Joseph Barker written by himself (London 1880). Henry Broadhurst, The story of his life told by himself (London 1872). James Burn, The Beggar Boy: an autobiography (London 1882, reprinted 1978). Thomas Burt, M.P., D.C.L. Pitman, Privy Councillor, An Autobiography (London 1924). Thomas Carter, Memoirs of a Working Man (London 1845). Valerie E. Chancellor (ed.) Master and Artisan in Victorian England: The diary of William Andrews and the Autobiography of Joseph Gutteridge (London 1969). Thomas Cooper, The life of Thomas Cooper (London 1882).G.L. Craik, The pursuit of knowledge under difficulties (London 1831). A Journeyman Engineer, Habits and Customs of the Working Classes (London 1867). George Haw, From Workshop to Westminster: the life of Will Crooks M.P., (London) Doris A. Jones, Life and Letters of Henry Arthur Jones (London 1930). F.M. Leventhal, Respectable Radical: George Howell and Victorian working class politics (London 1971). F.W. Hackwood, William Hone (London 1912). Thomas Holcroft, Memoirs of Thomas Holcroft (Oxford 1926). William Lovett, The Life and Struggles of William Lovett (London 1876). Hugh Miller, My schools and schoolmasters (Boston 1869). Frederick Rogers, Labour, Life and Literature: some memoirs of sixty years (London 1913). Alexander Somerville, Autobiography of a working man (London 1951). Christopher Thomson, Autobiography of an Artisan (London 1847). Ben Tillett, Memoirs and Reflections (London 1931). Robert S. Watson, Joseph Skipsey: his life and work (London 1909). Elizabeth Wright, Life of Joseph Wright (London 1932). Robert Roberts, A Ragged Schooling (Manchester 1976).
  • V.E. Chancellor (ed.), Autobiography of Joseph Gutteridge, (op.cit.). William Lovett, The life and struggles … (op.cit.). Hugh Miller, My schools … (op.cit.). Ben Tillett, Memoirs… note 46. John Buckmaster, A Village Politician … (op.cit.). note 19.
  • Select Committee on Public Libraries, volume 2, 1849. Newcastle Commission, (1861), (op.cit.), Samuelson Select Committee, (1868), (op.cit.), Devonshire Commission, 2nd Report, (1871), (op.cit.), note 10.
  • T.B. Graham, Some aspects of working class adult education in 19th century Carlisle, (op.cit.). D. Leigh, Further education in Carlisle in the 19th century, (op.cit.). G. Rogerson, Elements of working class adult education in Sheffield in the 19th century, (op.cit.). M. Turner, The miners' search for self improvement, (op.cit.), note 9.
  • Neuberg , Victor E. 1977 . Popular Literature: a history and guide: from the beginning of printing to the year 1897 Harmondsworth contains a valuable critical bibliography.
  • For a brief discussion of juvenile literature on Natural History and Science available in the first half of the 19th century see J.I. Whalley, Cobwebs to catch flies: illustrated books for the Nursery and Schoolroom 1700-1900 (London 1974). Few of these books would be available to the working classes. J.H. Pepper was active in this field in the second half of the 19th century publishing Scientific Amusements for Young People (London 1880) and The Boys' Playbook of Metals (London 1888).
  • Richard D. Altick, The English Common Reader (op.cit.) note 14. R.K. Webb, The British Working Class Reader 1790-1848 (London 1955).
  • Kelly , T. 1973 . History of Public Libraries in Great Britain 1845-1965 London
  • Harrison , J. F.C. 1961 . Learning and Living, 1790-1960: A Study in the History of the English Adult Education Movement London T. Kelly, A History of Adult Education … (op.cit.) note 8.
  • A.E.Dobbs, Education and Social Movements, (op.cit.) note 41. Edward Royle, Mechanics' Institutions and the Working Class, History Journal 14, (1971), 305-321.
  • V.E. Chancellor (ed.) Autobiography of Joseph Gutteridge, (op.cit.) note 46. Gutteridge, a Coventry weaver, pursued a variety of aspects of science, astronomy, geology and botany by means of reading, observation and mutual improvement. His autobiography is rich in observations of his natural surroundings. He pursued a clearly documented life long intellectual and spiritual journey.
  • Parsinnen , T. M. 1974 . Popular science and society: the phrenology movement in early Victorian Britain . Journal of Social History , 8 : 1 – 20 .
  • V.E. Chancellor (ed.), The Autobiography of Joseph Gutteridge, (op.cit.), note 46.
  • Nowell-Smith , Simon . 1958 . The House of Cassell 1848-1958 London
  • Chambers , William . 1872 . Memoir of Robert Chambers with Autobiographic Reminiscences , 6th edition Edinburgh Story of a Long and Busy Life (Edinburgh 1882).
  • Lee , Alan J. 1976 . Origins of the popular press 1855-1914 London
  • Metz , Nancy A. 1978 . Science in Household Words: ‘The Poetic … Passed into our Common Life’ . Victorian Periodicals Newsletter , 11 ( 4 ) : 121 – 132 .
  • Inkster , Ian . 1972 . A note on itinerant science lecturers 1790-1850 . Annals of Science , 28 : 235 – 236 .
  • In June 1871 there was a vigorous debate in the columns of Nature following the success of a series of penny lectures given in Manchester by Roscoe, Huxley and Lockyer. A National Society to diffuse scientific knowledge was suggested. A letter from Thomas Fawcett on June 8th, 1871 countered that lectures were of little value and only science in every school would succeed in spreading popular scientific knowledge and appreciation.
  • Shuttleworth , Lord and Cranage , D. H.S. 1930 . Pioneering work in Education Cambridge
  • Sir H.E. Roscoe, The Life and Experiences … (op.cit.) note 15, John Buckmaster, A Village Politician … (op.cit.) note 19. N. Lingard, The Scientific … (op.cit.) note 9. David Layton, A Victorian Showman of Science … (op.cit.) note 17.
  • D.S.L. Cardwell, The organisation of science … (op.cit.) note 8. Robert H. Kargon, Science in Victorian Manchester (op.cit.) note 8.
  • Harrison , J. F.C. 1954 . A history of the Working Men's College 1854-1954 London
  • T. Kelly, A history of adult education . . . . (op.cit) note 8.
  • Hare , Arnold . 1977 . External Courses in Science in the Bristol Region 1877-1886 . Studies in Adult Education , 9 : 30 – 48 .
  • T. Kelly, A history of adult education … (op.cit.). M.E. Sadler, Continuation schools in England and Elsewhere (Manchester 1906).
  • Draper , W. H. 1923 . University Extension Cambridge B. Jennings, The Oxford Report Reconsidered, Studies in Adult Education 7, (1975), 53-65. T. Kelly, Outside the Walls (Manchester 1950) for the Victoria University; H.J. Mackinder and M.E. Sadler, University Extension, Past, Present and Future (London 1890). R.G. Moulton, The University Extension Movement (London 1885). R. St. John Parry, (ed.) Cambridge Essays in Adult Education (Cambridge 1920). R.D. Roberts, Eighteen Years of University Extension (Cambridge 1891). R.D. Roberts, University Extension under the Old and New Conditions (Cambridge 1908). M.E. Sadler, Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere (Manchester 1906). Edwin Welch, The prehistory of the university tutorial class, History of Education Society Bulletin 17, (1976), 39-44.T. Kelly, A history of Adult Education … (op.cit.) note 8 has references to biography and an interesting note on women and science teaching (see p.220). The University Extension Journal was founded in 1895 (see Kelly p.236). N. A. Jepson, A critical analysis of the origin … (op.cit.) note 9, pays little attention to science, but addresses the problem of the extent of working class participation.
  • K. Dighton, Some aspects of the historical development of further education …(op.cit.). K.A. Percy, The development of state aided evening schools … (op.cit.). S. Somper, The London School Board … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Tholfsen , Trygve . 1976 . Working Class Radicalism in Mid Victorian England London
  • Descriptions of the administrative structure of the D.S.A. may be found in A.S. Bishop, The Rise of a Central Authority for English Education (Cambridge 1971). Graham Balfour, The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland (Oxford 1903). Eric Eaglesham, From School Board to Local Authority (London 1956) and brief accounts of its contribution to scientific and technical education may be found in M.Argles, From South Kensington to Robbins (op.cit.) note 8. C.T. Millis, Technical Education: its Development and Aims (London 1925). M.E. Sadler, Continuation Schools … (op.cit.) note 72.
  • For a discussion of the early history of the D.S.A. see the evidence of Henry Cole and Captain John Donnelly to the 1868 Samuelson Select Committee and 2nd report of the Devonshire Commission, 1872. A brief history is also given in printed Annual Reports. G.W. Tracey, The Origin and Growth of Scientific Instruction in Science Classes under the Science and Art Department, Durham Research Review 21, (1968), 305-308.
  • H. Butterworth, The development and influence … (op.cit.). M.E. Hipwell, Summary of the work … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Butterworth , H. 1971 . South Kensington and Whitehall; a conflict of educational purpose . Journal of Educational Administration and History , 6 ( 1 ) : 9 – 19 .
  • G.I. Birley, A study of the content of examinations in Chemistry in the 19th century, (op.cit.) note 9. P.S. Uzzell, The Science and Art department and the teaching of Chemistry, Vocational Aspect 29,74, (1977), 127-132.
  • Edmonds , E. L. 1957 . The Science and Art department: inspection and/or examination . Vocational Aspect , 9 : 116 – 127 . W.G. Hall, Sunderland School of Science and Art, Vocational Aspect 18, (1966), 164-180.
  • Briscoe , H. K. 1954 . Nottinghamshire Mechanics' Institutes in the 19th century . Vocational Aspect , 6 : 151 – 162 . A.F. Chadwick, The Derby Mechanics Institute 1825-1880, Vocational Aspect 27, (1975), 103-105.1.R. Cowan, Mechanics' Institutes and Science and Art Classes in Salford in the 19th century, Vocational Aspect 20, (1968), 201-210. J.P. Hemming, The Mechanics' Institutes in the Lancashire and Yorkshire textile districts from 1850, Journal of Educational Administration and History 9, (1977), 18-31, and Ph.D. thesis (see note 9) includes material on the local examinations of the Union of Cheshire and Lancashire Institutes. P. Keane, Individualism and efficiency in the Mechanics' Institutes, Studies in Adult Education 6, (1974), 146-160. J. Popple, The Mechanics' Institutes of East and North Riding of York, 1837'-1887', Vocational Aspect 10, (1958), 29-46. Alan Woods, The Mechanics' Institutes of North East Lancashire 1851-1889: a comparative study, Vocational Aspect 29, (1977), 37-44.A.F. Chadwick, The Derby … (op.cit.). A. Lloyd Davies, The Barnsley … (op.cit.).T. Evans, The Mechanics' Institutes of South Wales … (op.cit.).W.G. Hall, The provision of technical education in Sunderland … (op.cit.).J.P. Hemming, The Mechanics' Institute Movement … (op.cit.).N. Kemp, Scientific and technical education in Liverpool . . . . (op.cit.). M. Lucas, The growth of technical education in Darlington … (op.cit.). C.K. Lysons, The development of technical education in St. Helens… (op.cit.). Millwood, The development of technical education in Leicester … (op.cit.). J. Popple, The Yorkshire Union … (op.cit.). H.P. Reilly, The history of technical education in Rotherham … (op.cit.). T.A. Smith, The effect of national developments on technical education in Bury, Oldham and Preston … (op.cit.). T.A. Smith, Some aspects of the technical education in Lancashire … (op.sit.).C.M. Turner, The development of Mechanics' Institutes in Warwickshire, Worcestershire and Staffordshire … (op.cit.). J.H. Williams, The Crewe … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • The Cole Bequest is in the Victoria and Albert. The Manuscript Minutes of the D.S. A. are in ED 28 at the P.R.O., 31 volumes, 1852-1876, complete only to 1865. For material on Cole see Q. Bell, The Schools of Design (London 1963). H. Butterworth, The development and influence … (op.cit.). C. Duke, The department of Science and Art … (op.cit.) note 9. A.S. Levine, The Politics of Taste: the Science and Art department of Great Britain, 1852-1873 Ph.D. thesis, (Wisconsin 1972). The only work on John Donnelly is W.H.G. Armytage, John Donnelly: Pioneer of Vocational Education (op.cit.) note 17.
  • Roberts , K. O. 1969 . The separation of secondary and technical education . Vocational Aspect , 21 : 101 – 105 . W. de W. Abney, Proc. Royal Society 99A, (1921), i-v.
  • See the evidence of T.H. Huxley, Edward Frankland and John Tyndall to the Royal Commissions. Roy M. Macleod, The X Club: a Social Network in late Victorian England, Notes and Records of the Royal Society 24, 2, (1970), 305-322. Roy Macleod, Resources of Science in Victorian England: the Endowment of Science Movement, 1868-1900 in Peter Mathias (ed.), Science and Society 1600-1900 (Cambridge 1972).
  • C.N.J. Scudamore, The Bridge Street School (op.cit.) note 31.
  • D.M. Turner, The history … (op. cit.) note 8. A. Waplington, The work of the Leeds School Board … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Brady , D. B. 1977 . Some early public examinations in Chemistry . Education in Chemistry , 14 : 76 – 8 .
  • Birchenough , Charles . 1927 . History of Elementary Education in England and Wales London Marjorie Cruickshank, Church and State in English Education: 1870 to the Present Day (London 1963). John Hurt, Education in Evolution (London 1971). Elementary Education and the Working Classes 1860-1914 (London 1971). John Lawson and Harold Silver, A Social History of Education in England (London 1973). James Murphy, Church, State and Schools in Britain 1800-1970 (London 1971). Brian Simon, The Two Nations and the Educational Structure 1780-1870 (London 1960), Education and the Labour Movement 1870-1920 (London 1965). Frank Smith, A history of English Elementary Education 1760- 1902 (London 1931). Gillian Sutherland, Policy making in Elementary Education 1870-1895 (Oxford 1973). David Wardle, English Popular Education 1780-1970 (Cambridge 1971).
  • Harold Silver, Aspects of Neglect … (op.cit.) note 6. P. Gordon and D. Lawton, Curriculum change … (op.cit.) note 8, is a general account of the curriculum in all types of school. D.M. Turner, A history … (op.cit.) note 8, gives a very brief account. Richard Luker, Science education … (op.cit.) note 9, gives a detailed account of work in London and Birmingham. P.S. Uzzell, The development of Science teaching … (op.cit.) note 9, gives a valuable account of work in elementary and Higher Grade Schools.
  • Stewart , W. A. C. and McCann , W. P. 1967 . The Educational Innovators 1750-1880 London F.W. Robinson, William Ellis … (op.cit.) note 9. A. Price, A Pioneer of scientific education: George Combe (1788-1858), Educational Review (1960), 219-229. G.W. Tracy, George Combe: Pioneer in Curriculum Reform, Durham Research Review 25, (1970), 477-482. N. Ball, Richard Dawes and the teaching of common things, Educational Review 17, (1964), 59-68. David Layton, Science in the Schools: the first wave-a study of the influence of Richard Dawes 1793-1867, British Journal of Educational Studies 20, (1972), 38-57.
  • David Layton, Britain's First Science H.M.I. . . . (op.cit.) note 17.
  • David Layton, Science for the People (op.cit.) note 22.
  • Joshua , G. Fitch . 1854 . The Relative Importance of Subjects Taught in Elementary Schools 14 – 26 . London A.L. Lilley, Sir Joshua Fitch (London 1906). A. Robertson, Sir Joshua Girling Fitch 1824-1903: a bibliography, Education Libraries Bulletin 41, (1971), 14-26. A. Robertson, J.G. Fitch and the origins of the liberal movement in education 1863-1870, Journal of Educational Administration and History 3,2, (1971), 9-14.
  • Gillian Sunderland, Policy making … (op.cit.) note 88.
  • Annual Report of the London School Board.
  • Playfair , Lyon . 1872 . On Primary and Technical Education London Evidence of Playfair, Huxley, Tyndall and Frankland to the 1868 Samuelson Select Committee and Devonshire Commission, 2nd Report 1872.
  • Layton , David . 1976 . The educational work of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science . History of Education , 5 : 25 – 39 . Richard Luker, Science Education … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • David Layton, Science for the People … (op.cit.) note 22.
  • The Cross Commission, R.C.T.I., and Nature contain evidence about the ‘peripatetic method’ (see below Section 5). The Bryce Commission made a thorough investigation of Higher Grade Schools.
  • For a discussion of code changes see G. Sutherland, Policy making … (op.cit.) note 88, and for their application to science see Richard Luker, Science education … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • This gap concerned a number of witnesses to the Cross Commission. For a discussion of attempts to bridge it see R. J.W. Selleck, The New Education 1870-1914 (London 1968).
  • For a discussion of the structuring of science in Birmingham see C.M. Heward, Education, Examinations and the Artisans in Roy Macleod (ed.), Days of Judgement (Driffield, forthcoming). For evidence on the social composition of the Higher Grade Schools see the special reports on particular areas submitted by the Assistant Commissioners on the Bryce Commission 1895.
  • This also concerned other witnesses, see for example the evidence of Mr. Balchin, Headmaster of Nunhead Passage School, London.
  • For a brief discussion see P. Gordon and D. Lawton, Curriculum Change … (op.cit.) note 8. For a fuller discussion see Barbara Wynn, Aspects of the teaching of domestic subjects, M.A. thesis (London 1974).
  • See for example the reports of the Birmingham School Board during the 1880s.
  • R.J.W. Selleck, The New Education… (op.cit.) note 101.
  • For details of the education of pauper children see Select Committee on the Education of Destitute Children, 1861 and Departmental Committee on the Education and Maintainance of Pauper Children, 1896. See also W. Duffy, The Early Years … (op.cit.). A.M. Ross, The care and education … (op.cit.). G.T. Wiley, Educating the children … (op.cit.) note 9. For the practical instruction in Reformatories see H.A. Scuff, The perishing and dangerous classes … (op.cit.). R.J. Clouch, The history of reformatory … (op.cit.) note 9. J.C. Buckmaster began his teaching career at Parkhurst among juvenile offenders. J.C. Buckmaster, The village politician … (op.cit.) note 19. Mary Tasker, J. C. Buckmaster … (op.cit.) note 9. For the ‘practical tradition’ see Nancy Ball, Practical subjects in Mid Victorian Elementary Schools, History of Education 82, (1979), 109-120. For the influence of these pressures upon an urban elementary curriculum see David Wardle, Education and Society in 19th century Nottingham London 1971).
  • Sadler , M. E. 1987 . Board of Education Special Reports on Educational Subjects
  • The manuscript minutes of one such branch, running from 1885-1887 is preserved in Birmingham Reference Library.
  • Bryant , C. L. 1950 . ‘Fifty years on’ . School Science Review , 32 : 140 – 5 .
  • See Edgar Jenkins' bibliography in this volume.
  • George , Elder Davie . 1968 . The democratic intellect: Scotland and the Universities in the 19th century , Edinburgh . 2nd edition
  • David , Layton R. 1975 . Huxley as Educator: A Reappraisal . History of Education Quarterly , 15 : 219 – 225 .
  • The significance of this development for the class structuring of English Education was not lost, however, on Sir Fred Clarke, Education and Social Change: an English Interpretation (London 1940) and Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (London 1961).
  • See for example M. Argles, From South Kensington … (op.cit.) note 8. P. Keane, The evolution of technical education… (op.cit.) note 9.
  • See infra, note 9.
  • J. Blanchet, Public opinion and technical education … (op.cit.) note 9. Eric Ashby, Technology and the Academics (London 1958). M. Sanderson, The Universities and British Industry 1850-1970 (London 1972) are concerned with the effect of these influences upon the development of technology in the universities.
  • Armytage , W. H.G. 1956 . Some Sources for the History of Technical Education . British Journal of Educational Studies , 5 : 72 – 79 . 159-165, ibid. 6, (1957), 64-73.
  • Sadler , Michael . 1907 . Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere: their place in the educational system of an industrialised and commercial state , Manchester University Press . C.T. Millis, Technical Education: its Development and Aims (London 1925). Stephen Cotgrove, Technical Education and Social Change, (op.cit.) note 8.
  • P.H. Andrews, Post elementary education … (op.cit.). D.M. Brooks, Vocational education … (op.cit.). J.P. Hemming, The Mechanics' Institute movement… (op.cit.). H. Lewis, The development of technical education … (op.cit.). B. Lloyd, The development of education … (op.cit.). M. Lucas, The growth of technical education … (op.cit.). G.W. Roderick, Scientific and technical training …(op.cit.). T.A. Smith, Some aspects of technical education in Lancashire, (op.cit.) note 9. R.J. Spring, The Chemical Sciences in the London Area during the 19th Century, Ph.D.thesis (London 1978). L.E. Webster, Development of technical education in Smethwick, Blackcountryman 6, (1973.
  • A.S. Bishop, The Rise of a Central Authority, (op.cit.) note 75. P.H.J.H. Gosden, The development of educational administration in England and Wales (Oxford 1966).
  • Cooper , A. J. Miss . 1897 . Technical Education for Girls . Board of Education Special Reports on Educational Subjects , 1 : 185 – 193 .
  • Jones , D. K. 1977 . The making of the Education System 1851-1881 London M. Sanderson, The Universities … (op.cit.) note 117. D.S.L. Cardwell, The organisation of Science … (op.cit.) note 8. J. Scott Russell, Systematic Technical Education (London 1869), a contemporary account of the lessons of Exhibitions.
  • N. Mikhail, The British Association … (op.cit.). J. Blanchet, Public opinion and technical education … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • A. Potts, The educational work … (op.cit.) note 9.
  • David Layton, Huxley as Educator … (op.cit.) note 113.
  • Harold Silver, Aspects of Neglect … (op.cit.) note 6.
  • 1868 . Journal of the Society of Arts , 16 : 185 – 209 .
  • See S.J.Curtis and M.E. Boultwood, A short history of Educational Ideas 5th edition (London 1977) on T.H. Huxley.
  • Ludlow , J. M. 1868 . Technical Education . Contemporary Review , 8 : 23 – 35 . J. Scott Russell, Systematic Technical Education (op.cit.) note 123. Thomas Twining, Technical Training: being a suggestive sketch of a National System of industrial instruction founded on a general diffusion of practical science among people.
  • Bibby , C. T.H. 1956 . Huxley and technical education . Journal of the Royal Society of Arts , 14 : 810 – 820 . idem. Science as an Instrument of Culture: an examination of the Views of T.H. Huxley. Researches and Studies, 15, (1957), 7-23. idem. T.H. Huxley, Scientist, humanist and educator (London 1959). idem. The Essence of T.H. Huxley, selections from his writings, edited with several brief interpretative essays (London 1967). idem. T.H. Huxley and education: A Selection of his Writings with an Introductory Essay and Notes (Cambridge 1971). idem. Scientist Extraordinary: The Life and Work of T.H. Huxley (Oxford 1972).
  • Armstrong , Lord . 1888 . A Cry for Useless Knowledge . Nineteenth Century , 25 : 32 – 38 . idem. The Vague Cry for Technical Education ibid 25, (1888), 158-161. Technical Education Contemporary Review 55, (1889), 771-783 in which a number of industrialists, from a wide variety of trades and industries, stress the value of technical education in an attempt to counter Armstrong.
  • Roy MacLeod, Resources for Science, (op.cit.) note 84.
  • For the dominance of these issues see the Society of Arts Conference in 1868, note 128.
  • Royal Commission on the Depression of Trade and Industry, 1886.
  • Evidence of John Donnelly and Henry Cole to the 1868 Samuelson Select Committee.
  • Bray , Reginald A. 1911 . Boy Labour and Apprenticeship , London . O.J. Dunlop and R.D. Denman, Apprenticeship and Child Labour: a history (London 1912), The Apprenticeship Question, Report of the Section of the London Education Committee (London 1906).
  • G.W. Roderick and M.D. Stephens, Education and Industry (op.cit.) note 8.
  • J. Blanchet, Public opinion and technical education (op.cit.). Frank Foden, A History of Technical Education (op.cit.) note 9.
  • J.S. and H.G. Thompson, Silvanus Phillips Thompson, (op.cit.). Frank Foden, Philip Magnus, (op.cit.) note 18.
  • C.T. Millis, Technical Education, (op.cit.) note 119. H.H. Solly, The Trades Guilds of Learning (London 1873). Evidence of H.H. Solly to the R.C.T.I. 1882-1884. In the end a compromise was effected between these contradictions and drink was permitted in the working men's clubs, after which the movement was considerably more successful.
  • H.H. Solly, These Eighty Years (op.cit.) note 15.
  • J. Blanchet, Public opinion and technical education (op.cit.) note 9. M. Argles, The Royal Commission on Technical Instruction 1881-1884: its inception and composition, Vocational Aspect 11, (1959), 97-104.
  • Sharp , P. R. 1968 . The entry of county councils into English educational administration 1889 . Journal of Educational Administration and History , 1 : 14 – 22 . P.R. Sharp, The work of the Technical Instruction Committees (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Some of the rural authorities used the money to reduce rates. P.R. Sharp, The public financing (op.cit.) note 9.
  • London County Council, Report to the Special Committee on Technical Education by H. Llewellyn Smith, 1892. J. Rae, The Work of the Beer Money, Contemporary Review, 66, (1894), 508-536. Sidney Webb, The Work of the L.C.C., Contemporary Review, 65, (1895). P.H.J.H. Gosden, Technical Instruction Committees in: History of Education Society, Studies in the Government and Control of Education since 1860 (London 1970).
  • N. Kemp, Scientific and technical education in Liverpool, (op.cit.). M. Lucas, The growth of technical education in Darlington, (op.cit.). H.P. Reilly, The history of technical education in Rotherham, (op.cit.). E. Riley, Secondary and technical education in Manchester, (op.cit.). P.R. Sharp, The work of the technical instruction committees, (op.cit.) note 9. Malcolm Seabourne, The work of the Technical Instruction Committee 1891-1903 in: Brian Simon (ed.), Education and Social Change in Leicestershire 1540-1940 (Leicester 1968).
  • Morris , Norman . 1972 . “ The contribution of local investigations to historical knowledge ” . In Local Studies and the History of Education Edited by: Cook , T. G. London
  • The Record of Technical and Secondary Education: a quarterly journal of progress made by the County Councils and Local Authorites in the administration of the Technical Instruction Acts, running from 1891 to 1906. It was the organ of the N.A.P.T.E.
  • C.N.J. Scudamore, The Bridge Street School, (op.cit.) note 31, has analysed occupational recruitment to one such school in Birmingham.
  • For an introduction to some of these changes, William Ashworth, An Economic History of England 1870-1939 (London 1960). E.J. Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire: From 1750 to the present day (London 1968). For a fuller treatment, J.C. Clapham, An Economic History of Modern Britain, volume 3, (Cambridge 1930).
  • J.D. Cole and Raymond Postgate, The Common People, (op.cit.) note 34. H.A. Clegg, A. Fox and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions since 1889 (Oxford 1964). Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism (Harmondsworth 1963). Sidney and Beatrice Webb, The History of Trade Unionism (London 1920). For trade union views of technical and scientific education see Robert Applegarth's evidence to Devonshire (2nd Report 1872). R. Humphreys, Life of Robert Applegarth (London 1913). For the views of artisans see T.C. Barnes et. al. evidence to R.C.T.I. (Samuelson) 1884.
  • D. M. Brooks, Vocational Education (op.cit.). F. Foden, The history of Technical Education (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Roach , J. P.C . 1971 . Public examinations in England 1850-1900 London R.T. Montgomery, Examinations: an account of their evolution as administrative devices in England (London 1965). (Chapter 4 is on technical education and gives a useful account of the Mechanics Institutes, the Society of Arts, payment on Results and the City and Guilds).
  • The extension of examinations to the practical sphere was strongly advocated by the D.S.A. examiners and practical examinations were introduced in chemistry and physiology.
  • Hall , Peter G. 1962 . The Industries of London since 1861 London
  • Thorns , D. W. 1976 . “ Guides to Sources in the History of Education ” . In The History of Technical Education in London 1904-1940 , Vol. 4 , Leicester .
  • Stephen Cotgrove, Technical education and social change, (op.cit.) note 8. E.M. Wood, The polytechnic movement and Quentin Hogg (London 1904, 2nd ed. 1932). E.M. Wood, History of the Polytechnic (London 1969). Sidney Webb, The London Polytechnic Movement, Board of Education Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 2, (1898), 59-75. For critical comments on such issues as the type of student, methods of instruction and inadequacy of grant see Nature, Jan. 16 1890 and May 24 1894.
  • Arnold Hare, External courses in science, (op.cit.) note 70. P. Keane, The evolution of technical education, (op.cit.) note 9. A.N. Shimmin, The University of Leeds: its first half century (Cambridge 1954). Joseph Thompson, Owens College: its foundation and growth (Manchester 1886). The Record contains evidence of support for University extension work in technical subjects by Technical Instruction Committees e.g. R.D. Roberts, University Extension and Higher Education, The Record, 7, (1898), 45-50.
  • Cruickshank , Marjorie . 1963 . Church and State in English Education 1870 to the Present day London H.C. Dent, Secondary Education for all (London 1949). E.J.R. Eaglesham, From School Board to Local Authority (London 1956). E.J.R. Eaglesham, The foundations of twentieth Century Education in England (London 1968). Elie Halevy, Imperialism and the Rise of Labour 1895-1905 (London 1951). Brian Simon, Education and the Labour Movement 1870-1920 (London 1970). Marjorie Cruickshank, A defence of the 1902 Act, History of Education Society Bulletin, 19, (1977), 2-6. Brian Simon, The 1902 Act - A wrong turning ibid. 19, (1977), 7-14.
  • Roberts , K. O. 1969 . The Separation of Elementary, Secondary and Technical Education . Vocational Aspect , 21 : 101 – 105 . E.W. Jenkins, Science Education and the Secondary School Regulations, Journal of Educational Administration and History 10, (1978), 31-38.
  • Lowndes , G. A.N. 1968 . The Silent Social Revolution: an account of the expansion of public education in England and Wales 1895-1965 London Marjorie Cruikshank, Church and State (op.cit.) note 160.
  • E.J.R. Eaglesham, From School Board to Local Authority, Appendix A,B,D & E (op.cit.) note 160. Olive Banks, Parity and Prestige in English Secondary Education (London 1961). B.M. Allen, Down the Stream of Life (London 1948). Roy Lowe, The divided curriculum: Sadler, Morant and the English Secondary School, Journal of Curriculum Studies 8, (1977), 139-148. J. Stuart Maclure, Educational Documents: England and Wales, 1816 to the present (London 1965). E.W. Jenkins, Science education and the Secondary School Regulation (op.cit.) note 160. H.C. Dent, Secondary Education for All (op.cit.) note 160.
  • P.R. Sharp, The public financing of Secondary and Technical Education (op.cit.) note 9.
  • E.W. Jenkins, Science Education and the Secondary School Regulations, (op.cit.) note 160. B.S. Cane, Science and technical subjects in the curriculum of English Secondary Schools at the turn of the century, British Journal of Educational Studies 8, (1959), 52-64. Norman Morris, The contribution of local investigations, (op.cit.) note 148.
  • E.W. Jenkins, Science Education and the Secondary School Regulations, (op.cit.) note 160.
  • Bryce , James . The Record 7 . ‘Presidential’ speech to the N.A.P.T.E. at the 10th Annual Meeting . Dec. 17 1897 . pp. 94 – 96 . (The President, H.E. Roscoe, was absent.) (1898), 94-96. For an additional opinion on ‘too much science‘ see Edward Fry, Science and Education, Contemporary Review 87, (1905), 383-392.
  • Crossick , G. 1977 . The Lower Middle Class in Britain 1870-1914 London David'Lockwood The Blackcoated Worker (London 1958).
  • See, for example, the evidence of T.C. Barnes to the 2nd Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction. R.W. Rich, The Training of Teachers in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge 1933).
  • Jenkins , E. W. 1979 . From Armstrong to Nuffield: Studies in Science Education in England and Wales London R.L. Archer, Secondary Education in the 19th century (Cambridge 1921).
  • E.W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield … (op.cit.) note 170. T.B. Green, Physical science teaching (op.cit.) note 9. The role of heurism and H.E. Armstrong's insistence on experimental methods in these developments is a matter of debate. E.W. Jenkins, From Armstrong to Nuffield … (op.cit.) note 170. W.H. Brock (ed.) H.E. Armstrong and the teaching of science 1880 -1930 (Cambridge 1973). G. van Praagh, H.E. Armstrong and science education (London 1973).
  • C.N.J. Scudamore, The social background… (op.cit.) note 31. Jean Floud, A.H. Halsey and C.H. Martin, Social Class and Educational Opportunity (London 1953).
  • Silver , Harold . 1977 . “ The half timers ” . In Popular education and socialisation in the 19th century Edited by: McCann , P. London
  • Olive Banks, Parity and Prestige, (op.cit.) note 163. E.J.R. Eaglesham, From School Board to Local Authority, Appendices B and C. Board of Education. Report upon Questions affecting Higher Elementary Schools, 1906.
  • David Layton, Science for the People (op.cit.) note 22 analyses the content of two innovations in science education in elementary schools in the mid 19th century. G.E. Davie, The Democratic Intellect (op.cit.) note 112 discusses the changing curriculum of the Scottish Universities in the 19th century. D. Wardle, Education and Society in 19th century Nottingham (London 1971) describes the developments in the curricula of the elementary and higher grade schools, noting the growth of woodwork and domestic science. P. Gordon and D. Lawton, The Changing Curriculum (op.cit.) note 8, have brief discussion of the general development of science, but they do not differentiate between institutional levels.
  • Pinkerton , R. H. 1892 . An Elementary Textbook of Dynamics and Hydrostatics , London : Blackie . 3rd edition, contained definitions of kinematics, dynamics, statics, gravity, friction, uniform circular motion, pendulum, work and energy, forces, machines, hydrostatics, density and gases and aimed to prepare students for the D.S.A., University of London, (matric and intermediate), University of Edinburgh, (medical prelim), Universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, (pass M.A.). An example of a different genre, Elementary Physiography, an introduction to the study of nature, published by Longmans in 1890, was written by John Thornton, headmaster of Clarence Street Higher Grade School, Bolton, and is designed to give older school children an introduction to the scientific principles underlying geology, climate, weather and physical geography. A study of physiography is long overdue and would make an interesting alternative to yet another local study of technical education. Only a single study of school textbooks has so far been made, J.M. Goldstrom, The Social Content of Education, 1808-1870: A study of the Working Class School Reader in England and Ireland (Shannon 1972).
  • J.P. Bremner, Some Aspects of the teaching of the biological sciences, (op.cit.). T.B. Green, Physical science teaching, (op.cit.). P.S. Uzzell, The development of science teaching, (op.cit.) note 9.
  • G.I. Birley, A study of the content of examinations, (op.cit.) note 9. D.B. Brady Some early public examinations in Chemistry (op.cit.) note 87.
  • P.S. Uzzell, The development of science teaching (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Musgrave , P. W. 1971 . “ Metallurgy and the Department of Science and Art 1870-1900 ” . In History, Sociology and Education Edited by: Musgrave , P. London
  • Millis , C. T. 1932 . Education for Trades and Industries: a Historical Review London
  • Gladstone , J. H. 1879 . Elementary Natural Science in the Board Schools of London , British Association Report .
  • Luker , R. Science education under the school boards uses log book evidence extensively. His study of Rotley, a village school in Leicestershire, is particularly interesting.
  • J.H. Goldstrom, The social content, (op.cit.) note 176, p.169, shows that there was a decline in the demand for science texts after the introduction of the Revised Code.
  • See, for example, the debate in Nature during the ‘overpressure’ controversy, J.H. Gladstone, Overpressure in elementary schools, Nature 31, (1884), 73-75 and a teacher's reply Nature, Dec. 18, 31, (1884).
  • Journal of Education 1879-1953 (London); see, for example, Botanical Studies, (1893), p.556, Science Notes, (1893), p.154 and School Museums, (1895), p.422.
  • See for example the report of the nature study exhibition in Regents Park in July and August 1902, The Record 11, (1902), 387-426, which includes many illustrations.
  • R. Luker, Science education under the school boards, (op.cit.). P.S. Uzzell, The development of science teaching, (op.cit.) note 9.
  • Harrison , W. J. 1884 . On a New Method for the Teaching of Science in Public Elementary Schools . Nature , 31 : 175 – 179 .
  • G. van Praagh, H.E. Armstrong, (op.cit.). W.H. Brock, H.E. Armstrong, (op.cit.) note 16.
  • R.J.W. Selleck, The New Education (op.cit.) note 101. David Wardle, The Nottingham School Board's experiments in vocational education, Vocational Aspect, 17, (1965), 28-39.
  • B. Wynn, Aspects of the teaching of domestic subjects, (op.cit.) note 104 ibid. Domestic subjects and the sexual division of labour: Case Study 2 in Open University E202, Schooling and Society Unit 14 (1977) Knowledge, Ideology and the Curriculum, p.27-37, ibid Sexism in Education, (forthcoming).
  • Object lessons were very popular with teachers and teacher trainers see, for example, A.H. Garlick, A New Manual of Method (London 1904), 66-78. F.W. Hackwood, New Object Lessons in Animal Life (London 1898). For the rise of Nature Study see Edgar Jenkins' bibliography supra.
  • John A. Hall, A historical survey of science instruction in Liverpool, (op.cit.) note 9.
  • R.C.T.I., 2nd Report 1882, p.550.
  • Wells , H. G. 1934 . Essay in Autobiography London The New Machiavelli (London 1931).
  • J.H. Gladstone, Elementary Natural Science in the Board Schools of London (op.cit.) note 182. W.J. Harrison, On a New Method for Teaching Science (op.cit.) note 189.
  • John Buckmaster, A village politician (op.,cit.) note 19. H.E. Roscoe, The Life and Experience of H.E. Roscoe (op.cit.) note 15.
  • Harrison , W. J. 1881 . “ On the teaching of science in Public Elementary Schools ” . In Birmingham Philosophical Society C.J. Woodward, Evening Chemical Teaching in Birmingham: A Retrospect. An address to the Municipal Technical School Chemistry Society, (Birmingham, 1900).
  • Reeder , David . 1979 . “ A Recurring Debate: Education and Industry ” . In Schooling in Decline Edited by: Bernbaum , Gerald . London F. Clarke, Education and Social Change (op.cit.) note 114. Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (op.cit.) note 114.
  • There is considerable debate about the nature and extent of this influence. Perhaps the most illuminating study is J.J. McGlashen, German Influence on aspects of English educational and social reform (op.cit.) note 9. See also D.G. Taylor, The German example and English science education (op.cit.) note 9. G. Haines IV, German influences upon English education and Sciences 1800-1866 (Connecticut, 1957), idem German influence upon scientific instruction in England 1867-1887, Victorian Studies 1, (1958), 215-244. W.H.G. Armytage, The German Influence on English Education (London 1969).
  • Felkin , H. M. 1881 . Education in a Saxon Town London was enormously influential in setting up the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction. Interest in Germany and other countries grew in the period before the First World War. Between 1897 and 1912, The Board of Education published 25 volumes of Special Reports on Educational Subjects, nearly all of them on education in other countries.
  • Carol , Dyhouse . 1976 . Social Darwinistic ideas and the development of women's education in England 1880-1920 . History of Education , 5 : 41 – 58 .
  • See, for example, A.E. Carver, An investigation of the dietary of the labouring classes (Birmingham 1913).
  • 1978 . Margaret Gowing, Science, Industry and Technology before 1870 . Oxford Review of Education , 4 : 3 – 17 .
  • Layton , David . Science for the People For an example of the curriculum in a single elementary school throughout the period see Pamela and Harold Silver, The Education of the Poor: the history of a national school 1824-1974 (London 1974).
  • Layton , David . 1975 . Science or Education? . University of Leeds Gazette , 18 : 81 – 105 .

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