Business as usual? Cannabis legalisation and agrarian change in Zimbabwe

References

• Interviews
   Google Scholar
• Interview 2, Illicit Consumer 30/7/2022
   Google Scholar
• Interview 7, Illicit Trader 4/8/2022
   Google Scholar
• Interview 16, Local Community Leader 11/8/2022
   Google Scholar
• Interview 17, Licensed Farmer 13/8/2022
   Google Scholar
• Interview 21, Cannabis Industry Insider 27/2/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 22, Cannabis regulator, 7/3/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 23, Licensed Farmer 28/3/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 24, Cannabis Regulator 6/6/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 25, Licensed Farmer 24/7/2025
   Google Scholar
• Interview 26, Licensed Farmer 24/7/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 28, Local Traditional Leader 5/8/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 36, Illicit Producer 8/8/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 37, Illicit Producer 9/8/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 38, Local Community Member 9/8/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 43, Licensed Farmer 27/10/2023
   Google Scholar
• Interview 45, Licensed Farmer 15/1/2024
   Google Scholar
• Interview 46, Licensed Farmer 15/1/2024
   Google Scholar
• Allen, Chris. 1999. “Africa & the Drugs Trade.” Review of African Political Economy 79: 5–11.
   Google Scholar
• AMA. 2022. Industrial hemp Sector: Quarterly Report.” Unpublished Report.
   Google Scholar
• AMA. 2024. “Industrial hemp industry Overview.” Presentation at the Industrail Hemp Stakeholder Engagement Platform Meeting, 25 January 2024.
   Google Scholar
• Arrighi, Giovanni. 1970. “Labour Supplies in Historical Perspective: A Study of the Proletarianization of the African Peasantry in Rhodesia.” The Journal of Development Studies 6 (3): 197–234.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banya, Nelson. 2022. “Zimbabwean farmers hope for whiff of cannabis boom.” Reuters, May 11. Accessed February 7, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/zimbabwean-farmers-hope-whiff-cannabis-boom-2022-05-11/.
   Google Scholar
• Bewley-Taylor, David, Martin Jelsma, and Sylvia Kay. 2020. “Cannabis Regulation and Development: Fair (er) Trade Options for Emerging Legal Markets.” In Drug Policies and Development: Conflict and Coexistence, edited by Julia Buxton, Mary Chinery-Hesse, and Khalid Tinasti, 106–124. Leiden: Brill.
   Google Scholar
• Bloomer, Julian. 2019. “Turning Cannabis Into Cash: Agrarian Change and Lesotho’s Evolving Experience.” EchoGéo 48: 1–21.
   Google Scholar
• British South Africa Police. 1955. British South Africa Police Annual Report for 1954. Salisbury: British South Africa Police.
   Google Scholar
• British South Africa Police. 1956. British South Africa Police Annual Report for 1955. Salisbury: British South Africa Police.
   Google Scholar
• Carrier, Neil, and Gernot Klantschnig. 2012. Africa and the War on Drugs. London: Zed Books.
   Google Scholar
• Carrier, Neil, and Gernot Klantschnig. 2016. “Illicit Livelihoods: Drug Crops and Development in Africa.” Review of African Political Economy 43 (148): 174–189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corva, Dominic, and Joshua Meisel. 2021. The Routledge Handbook of Post-Prohibition Cannabis Research. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Criminal Law [Codification and Reform] Act 23. 2004. Accessed May 2, 2023. https://www.veritaszim.net/node/225.
   Google Scholar
• Criminal Law [Codification and Reform] Amendment Act. 2023. Accessed January 25, 2024. https://www.veritaszim.net/sites/veritas_d/files/Criminal%20Law%20%28Codification%20and%20Reform%29%20Amendment%20Bill%20-%20H.B.%2015%202022_0.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Dangerous Drugs Act [Chapter 15:02]. 2016. Accessed May 2, 2023. https://zimlii.org/akn/zw/act/1955/28/eng@2016-12-3.
   Google Scholar
• Decorte, Tom, Simon Lenton, and Chris Wilkins. 2020. Legalizing Cannabis: Experiences, Lessons and Scenarios. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Duvall, Chris S. 2017. “Cannabis and Tobacco in Precolonial and Colonial Africa.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, edited by Thomas Spear, 1–38. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Duvall, Chris S. 2019. “A Brief Agricultural History of Cannabis in Africa, from Prehistory to Canna-Colony.” EchoGéo 48: 1–25.
   Google Scholar
• Gallien, Max, and Giovanni Occhiali. 2023. “Cannabis Taxation as a Revenue Source for Development: Opportunities and Challenges.” Policy Brief. Accessed June 28, 2023. https://www.ids.ac.uk/publications/cannabis-taxation-as-a-revenue-source-for-development-opportunities-and-challenges/.
   Google Scholar
• Gastrow, Peter. 2003. “Mind-blowing: The cannabis trade in Southern Africa.” Unpublished paper, Cape Town, Institute for Security Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Gootenberg, Paul. 2020. “Chicken or eggs?: Rethinking illicit drugs and ‘Development’.” International Journal of Drug Policy 102985.
   Google Scholar
• Grooten, Tijmen. 2023. Seeds of Inequality: Contrasting Realities in South Africa’s Cannabis Industry. Amsterdam: TNI.
   Google Scholar
• Herald. 2022. “Idle licence holders put on notice … as President commissions US$27 m cannabis project “. 12 May. Accessed June 28, 2023. https://www.herald.co.zw/idle-licence-holders-put-on-notice-as-president-commissions-us27m-cannabis-project/#:~:text = The%20US%2427%20million%20medical,lead%20and%20open%20their%20businesses.
   Google Scholar
• Jelsma, Martin, Tom Blickman, Sylvia Kay, Pien Metaal, Nicolas Martinez, and Dania Putri. 2021. A Sustainable Future for Cannabis Farmers: ‘alternative Development’ Opportunities in the Legal Cannabis Market. Amsterdam: TNI.
   Google Scholar
• Kepe, Thembela. 2003. “Cannabis Sativa and Rural Livelihoods in South Africa: Politics of Cultivation, Trade and Value in Pondoland.” Development Southern Africa 20 (5): 605–615.
   Google Scholar
• Klein, Axel, Marta Rychert, and Machel A Emanuel. 2022. “Towards Social Justice and Economic Empowerment? Exploring Jamaica’s Progress with Implementing Cannabis law Reform.” Third World Quarterly 43 (11): 2693–2711.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manu, Emmanuel, Mbuyiselo Douglas, Mohlomi Jafta Ntsaba, and Elvis Enowbeyang Tarkang. 2021. “Perspectives of Illicit Marijuana Growers and Traders on Commercial Legalisation of Marijuana in South Africa: Considerations for Policy Formulation.” Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 16 (1): 1–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maricho Media. 2023. “Zim records hemp production growth.” 9 May. Accessed July 1, 2023 https://www.marichomedia.com/zim-records-hemp-production-growth/#:~:text = %E2%80%9CIn%202022%2C%20industrial%20hemp%20production,21.5ha%20the%20previous%20year.
   Google Scholar
• Mavhunga, Columbus. 2021. “Cannabis-Growing Gathers Momentum in Zimbabwe.” Voice of America. 9 July. Accessed: July 23, 2023. https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_cannabis-growing-gathers-momentum-zimbabwe/6208033.html.
   Google Scholar
• Mazwi, Freedom, Walter Chambati, and George T Mudimu. 2020. “Tobacco Contract Farming in Zimbabwe: Power Dynamics, Accumulation Trajectories, Land use Patterns and Livelihoods.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 38 (1): 55–71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meehan, Patrick. 2021. “Precarity, Poverty and Poppy: Encountering Development in the Uplands of Shan State, Myanmar.” International Journal of Drug Policy 89: 103064.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nkosi, Phumla Innocent. 2021. “Dagga and Data: Cannabis, Race, and Policing in Midcentury South Africa, 1932–1960.” The Social History of Alcohol and Drugs 35 (2): 232–259.
   Google Scholar
• Queirolo, Rosario. 2020. “Uruguay: The First Country to Legalize Cannabis.” In Legalizing Cannabis: Experiences, Lessons and Scenarios, edited by Tom Decorte, Simon Lenton, and Chris Wilkins, 116–130. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rusenga, Clemence. 2020. “Setting Them up to Fail: Enforcement of the Agribusiness Model on Land Reform Projects in South Africa.” Review of African Political Economy 47 (165): 382–398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rusenga, Clemence, Gernot Klantschnig, Neil Carrier, and Simon Howell. 2022. Cannabis policy changes in Africa are welcome. But small producers are the losers.” The Conversation. May 30. Accessed May 17, 2023: https://theconversation.com/cannabis-policy-changes-in-africa-are-welcome-but-small-producers-are-the-losers-179681#:~:text = The%20production%20by%20many%20smallholder,a%20license%20from%20state%20authorities.
   Google Scholar
• Rusere, Chipo. 2019. “Tobacco control in Zimbabwe and the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC): State of Affairs.” Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Cape Town.
   Google Scholar
• Rychert, Marta, Machel Anthony Emanuel, and Chris Wilkins. 2021. “Foreign Investment in Emerging Legal Medicinal Cannabis Markets: The Jamaica Case Study.” Globalization and Health 17 (1): 1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shonhe, Toendepi, Ian Scoones, and Felix Murimbarimba. 2022. “Agricultural Commercialisation and Changing Labour Regimes in Zimbabwe.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 40 (1): 78–96.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sowoya, Linda, Chifundo Akamwaza, Austin Mathews Matola, and Axel Klein. 2020. “Goodbye Nicky Hello Goldie–Exploring the Opportunities for Transitioning Tobacco Farmers Into Cannabis Production in Malawi.” Drugs and Alcohol Today 20 (3): 295–303.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statutory Instrument 62. 2018. Accessed June 20, 2023. https://www.veritaszim.net/node/2390#:~:text = Home-,SI%202018%2D062%20%2D%20Dangerous%20Drugs%20(Production%20of%20Cannabis%20for,into%20force%20on%20that%20date.
   Google Scholar
• Tanguay, Pascal. 2024. Cannabis Legalization in Thailand: Exploring Impacts on Markets and Organized Crime. Geneva: GI-TOC.
   Google Scholar
• Tarusarira, Joram. 2022. “The Grass Versus the People: Sacred Roots of Environmental Conflict in the Chilonga Communal Lands in Zimbabwe.” Zeitschrift für Religion, Gesellschaft und Politik 6 (1): 65–82.
   Google Scholar
• Tuinstra, Taco. 2023. “The Man Behind the Plan.” Tobacco Reporter. 1 May. Available at: https://tobaccoreporter.com/2023/05/01/the-man-behind-the-plan/#:~:text = Drawing%20on%20his%20extensive%20background,sustainable%20and%20competitive%20agricultural%20sector.
   Google Scholar
• UNODC. 2021. World Drug Report 2021: Drug Market Trends: Cannabis, Opioids. Vienna: United Nations.
   Google Scholar
• Vélez-Torres, Irene, Diana Hurtado, and Bladimir Bueno. 2021. “Medicinal Marijuana, Inc.: A Critique on the Market-led Legalization of Cannabis and the Criminalization of Rural Livelihoods in Colombia.” Critical Criminology 29: 505–526.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergara-Camus, Leandro, and Cristóbal Kay. 2017. “Agribusiness, Peasants, Left-Wing Governments, and the State in Latin America: An Overview and Theoretical Reflections.” Journal of Agrarian Change 17 (2): 239–257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waetjen, Thembisa. 2019. “Global Opium Politics in Mozambique and South Africa, c 1880–1930.” South African Historical Journal 71 (4): 560–586.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton, James. 1953. “The Dagga Pipes of Southern Africa.” Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum: Researches of the National Museum 1 (4): 85–113.
   Google Scholar
• Wilkins, Chris, Simon Lenton, and Tom Decorte. 2020. “Conclusion.” In In Legalizing Cannabis: Experiences, Lessons and Scenarios, edited by Tom Decorte, Simon Lenton, and Chris Wilkins, 427–437. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Wolpe, Harold. 1972. “Capitalism and Cheap Labour-Power in South Africa: From Segregation to Apartheid.” Economy and Society 1 (4): 425–456.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ZIDA. 2022. Checklist of requirements for medicinal cannabis production. Accessed from https://zidainvest.com/.
   Google Scholar