183
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Article

The beginnings of Danish foreign policy activism: Supporting Baltic independence 1990-1991

Pages 370-390 | Received 27 Jan 2020, Accepted 22 Jan 2022, Published online: 17 Feb 2022

References

  • Archer, Clive. “Nordic Swans and Baltic Cygnets.” Cooperation and Conflict 34, no. 1 (1999): 47–71. doi:10.1177/00108369921961771.
  • Bjørn, Claus, and Carsten Due-Nielsen. “Fra helstat til nationalstat, 1814–1914.” In Dansk udenrigspolitiks historie bn. 3, edited by Carsten Due-Nielsen, Ole Feldbæk, and Nikolaj Petersen. Copenhagen: Danish National Encyclopedia, 2003.
  • Branner, Hans. “Options and Goals in Danish European Policy since 1945: Explaining Small State Behavior and Foreign Policy Change.” In Denmark’s Policy Towards Europe Since 1945, edited by H. Branner and M. Kelstrup, 333–380. Odense: Odense University Press, 2000.
  • Branner, Hans. “Denmark between Venus and Mars: How Great a Change in Danish Foreign Policy?” In Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 2013, edited by Nanna Hvidt and Hans Mouritzen, 134–166. Copenhagen: DIIS, 2013.
  • Dagblaðið Vísir. “Á óleyfilegum hraða.” Dagblaðið Vísir, editorial, page 4, August 28, 1991. Accessed February 24, 2021. https://timarit.is/page/2588230?iabr=on#page/n7/mode/2up
  • Doyle, Michael W. “Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs.” Philosophy & Public Affairs 12, no. 3 (1983): 205–235.
  • Ellemann-Jensen, Uffe. Vejen jeg valgte. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 2007.
  • Forsvarskommissionen af 1997. Fremtidens forsvar, hovedbind. Copenhagen: Schultz Grafisk A/S, 1998.
  • Gallup. 1991. “Danmark, Nordisk Råd, Baltikum og Sovjet.” Accessed September 22, 2015. http://www2.tns-gallup.dk/tns_gallup/ugens_gallup/tekst/ug_1991_14.pdf
  • Grønbjerg, Lars. “The Baltic Independence Struggle and Danish Diplomacy 1988-1991.” In The End of the Cold War and the Baltic States, edited by Kaarel Piirimäe and Olaf Mertelsmann, 239–268. Berlin: Peter Lang, 2018.
  • Halper, Daniel. “Danish TV Host Mocks Obama for His Rhetoric.” March 23, 2012. Accessed January 2, 2020. http://www.weeklystandard.com/danish-tv-host-mocks-obama-for-his-rhetoric/article/634403
  • Hansen, Birthe. “Dansk Baltikumpolitik 1989–1995.” In Dansk udenrigspolitisk årbog 1995, edited by Svend Aage Christiansen and Ole Wæver, 35–66. Copenhagen: DUPI, 1996.
  • Hansen, Birthe. Unipolarity and the Middle East. Richmond: Curzon Press, 2000.
  • Hansen, Birthe. Unipolarity and World Politics: A Theory and Its Implications. New York: Routledge, 2011.
  • Heurlin, Bertel. “Nye prioriteringer i dansk udenrigspolitik.” In Dansk udenrigspolitisk årbog 1993, edited by Nikolaj Petersen and Christian Thune, 30–50. Copenhagen: DUPI, 1994.
  • Heurlin, Bertel. “Denmark’s Security Policy in the Baltic Sea Area after the Cold War.” In German and Danish Security Policies Towards the Baltic Sea Area 1945 until Present, edited by Gunnar Arteus and Bertel Heurlin, 88–107. Copenhagen: DUPI, 1998.
  • Heurlin, Bertel. Riget, magten og militæret: Dansk forsvars- og sikkerhedspolitik under forsvarskommissionerne af 1988 og 1997. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 2004.
  • Holm, H.H. “Denmark’s Active Internationalism: Advocating International Norms with Domestic Constraints.” In Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 1997, edited by Bertel Heurlin and Hans Mouritzen, 52–80. Copenhagen: DUPI, 1997.
  • Holm, H.H. “Danish Foreign Policy Activism: The Rise and Decline.” In Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 2002, edited by Bertel Heurlin and Hans Mouritzen, 19–45. Copenhagen: DUPI, 2002.
  • Hoppe, Christian. “Danmarks østpolitik.” In Dansk udenrigspolitisk årbog 1993, edited by Nikolaj Petersen and Christian Thune, 67–97. Copenhagen: DUPI, 1994.
  • Jakobsen, Peter Viggo. “Denmark at War: Turning Point or Business as Usual?” In Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 2000, edited by Bertel Heurlin and Hans Mouritzen, 61–85. Copenhagen: DUPI, 2000.
  • Jakobsen, Peter Viggo og Kristine Kjærsgaard. “Den danske FN-aktivismes storhed og fald 1945–2016.” Politica 49, no. 4 (2017): 377–400.
  • Jakobsen, Peter Viggo, Jens Ringsmose, and Håkon Lunde Saxi. “Prestige-Seeking Small States: Danish and Norwegian Military Contributions to US-led Operations.” European Journal of International Security 3, no. 2 (2018): 256–277. doi:10.1017/eis.2017.20.
  • Jóhannesson, Guðni. “Icelandic Support for Baltic Independence: Myth, Memory and Detachment.” Ajalooline Ajakiri 3/4, no. 157/158 (2016): 431–445.
  • Karup, Johs. “Kritik trækkes i land igen.” Politiken, January 16, 1991.
  • Kramer, Mark. “The Collapse of East European Communism and the Repercussions within the Soviet Union (Part 1).” Journal of Cold War Studies 5, no. 4 (2003): 178–256. doi:10.1162/152039703322483783.
  • Kramer, Mark. “The Collapse of East European Communism and the Repercussions within the Soviet Union (Part 2).” Journal of Cold War Studies 6, no. 4 (2004): 3–64. doi:10.1162/1520397042350955.
  • Kramer, Mark. “The Collapse of East European Communism and the Repercussions within the Soviet Union (Part 3).” Journal of Cold War Studies 7, no. 1 (2005): 3–96.
  • Kristensen, Kristian Søby, and Kristian Knus Larsen. “Denmark’s Fight against Irrelevance, or the Alliance Politics of ‘Punching above Your Weight’.” In Global Allies: Comparing US Alliances in the 21st Century, edited by Michael Wesley, 59–76. Canberra, Australia: ANU Press, 2017.
  • Kuldkepp, Mart. “Swedish Political Attitudes Towards Baltic Independence in the Short Twentieth Century” [In Estonian]. (Kokkuvõte: Rootsi poliitilised hoiakud balti riikide iseseisvuse suhtes lühikesel 20. sajandil).” Ajalooline Ajakiri. The Estonian Historical Journal 3, no. 3/4 (2016): 397–430. doi:10.12697/AA.2016.3-4.04.
  • Lawler, Peter. “Janus-Faced Solidarity Danish Internationalism Reconsidered.” Cooperation and Conflict 42, no. 1 (2007): 101–126. doi:10.1177/0010836707073478.
  • Mariager, Rasmus, and Anders Wivel. Hvorfor gik Danmark i krig? Uvildig udredning af baggrunden for Danmarks militære engagement i Kosovo, Afghanistan og Irak, Bind 1. Copenhagen: Rosendahls, 2019.
  • Mortensen, Clara Lyngholm, and Anders Wivel. “Mønstre og udviklingslinjer i Danmarks militære engagement 1945–2018.” In Hvorfor gik Danmark i krig? Irak og tværgående analyser, edited by Rasmus Mariager and Anders Wivel, 541–638. Copenhagen: Rosendahls, 2019.
  • Neumann, Iver B., and Henrikki Heikka. “Grand Strategy, Strategic Culture, Practice: The Social Roots of Nordic Defence.” Cooperation and Conflict 40, no. 1 (2005): 5–23. doi:10.1177/0010836705049731.
  • Nørgaard, Ole. “Danish Policies Towards the Baltic States.” In The Baltic States in International Politics, edited by Nikolaj Petersen, 155–174. Copenhagen: DJØF Publishing, 1993.
  • O’Clery, Conor. Moscow, December 25 1991: The Last Day of the Soviet Union. New York: Public Affairs, 2011.
  • Olesen, Thorsten Borring. “Tango for Thule: The Dilemmas and Limits of the “Neither Confirm nor Deny” Doctrine in Danish–American Relations, 1957–1968.” Journal of Cold War Studies 13, no. 2 (2011): 116–147. doi:10.1162/JCWS_a_00108.
  • Olesen, Mikkel Runge. “Two Danish Activist Foreign Policies? Changing Perceptions of Threat and Activism in Danish Foreign Policy 1988–2011”. DIIS Report 16, Copenhagen: DIIS, 2012a.
  • Olesen, Mikkel Runge. “In the Eye of the Decision-maker: A Theoretical Framework for State Reactions to Their External Environments Probed through Examinations of Key Danish Foreign Policy Decisions since 1864.” PhD diss., University of Copenhagen, 2012b.
  • Olesen, Mikkel Runge. “Danish Support for the Baltic Struggle for Independence 1988–1991: A Hawk–Dove Domestic Confrontation.” Baltic Journal of Political Science 3, no. 3 (2014): 83–99. doi:10.15388/BJPS.2014.3.4869.
  • Olesen, Mikkel Runge, and Anders Wivel. “Hvad blev der af den klassiske Kold Krigs-aktivisme? Den nordiske dimension i dansk udenrigspolitik.” Politik 18, no. 4 (2015): 14–24. doi:10.7146/politik.v18i4.27624.
  • Olesen, Niels Wium, and Thorsten Borring Olesen. Poul Schlüters tid 1982–1993 5 (2) De danske ministerier. Copenhagen: Gads Forlag, 2018.
  • Pedersen, Rasmus Brun. “Danish Foreign Policy Activism: Differences in Kind or Degree?” Cooperation and Conflict 47, no. 3 (2012): 331–349. doi:10.1177/0010836712444863.
  • Pedersen, Rasmus Brun. “Bandwagon for Status: Changing Patterns in the Nordic States Status-Seeking Strategies?” International Peacekeeping 25, no. 2 (2018): 217–241. doi:10.1080/13533312.2017.1394792.
  • Pedersen, Rasmus Brun, and Jens Ringsmose. “Aktivisme i dansk udenrigspolitik: Norden, FN, NATO og EU.” Politica: Tidsskrift for Politisk Videnskab 49, no. 4 (2017): 339–357.
  • Petersen, Nikolaj. Europæisk og globalt engagement. Dansk udenrigspolitiks historie bn. 6. Edited by Carsten Due-Nielsen, Ole Feldbæk, and Nikolaj Petersen. Copenhagen: Danish National Encyclopedia, 2004.
  • Petersen, Nikolaj. “Kampen om den kolde krig i dansk politik og forskning.” Historisk Tidsskrift 109, no. 1 (2009): 154–204.
  • Rasmussen, Mikkel Vedby. “What’s the Use of It? Danish Strategic Culture and the Utility of Armed Forces.” Cooperation and Conflict 40, no. 1 (2005): 67–89. doi:10.1177/0010836705049735.
  • Readman, Kristina Spohr. “Between Political Rhetoric and Realpolitik Calculations: Western Diplomacy and the Baltic Independence Struggle in the Cold War Endgame.” Cold War History 6, no. 1 (2006): 1–42.
  • Russett, Bruce, Christopher Layne, David E. Spiro, and W. Doyle Michael. “The Democratic Peace.” International Security 19, no. 4 (1995): 164–184. doi:10.2307/2539124.
  • Rynning, Steen. “Denmark as a Strategic Actor? Danish Security Policy After 11 September.” In Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 2003, edited by Per Clausen and Hans Mouritzen, 23–46. Copenhagen: DIIS, 2003.
  • Sparrow, Bartholomew H. “Realism’s Practitioner: Brent Scowcroft and the Making of the New World Order, 1989–1993.” Diplomatic History 34, no. 1 (2010): 141–175. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.2009.00836.x.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Udenrigsministeren på nordisk udenrigs- og bistandsministermøde i Torshavn den 29.-31. marts 1989, dagsordenpunkt 1: Den internationale situation. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., (March 1989a).
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., September 1, 1989b.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., October 25, 1989c.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., January 17, 1990a.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Summery of Uffe Ellemann-Jensen’s talk with British Foreign Minister Douglas Hurd. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., February 19, 1990b.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Message from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Danish embassy in Moscow. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., March 24, 1990c.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., March 25, 1990d.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Summary of EPS Eastern European Work Group Meeting. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., March 27-28, 1990e.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., April 27, 1990f.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Message from Uffe Ellemann-Jensen to Benny Kimberg. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., September 24, 1990g.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Danish Embassy in Moscow to Danish MFA, Summary of Telephone Conversation. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., November 26, 1990h.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Danish MFA News Proclamation. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., January 9, 1991a.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Extraordinary Meeting in EC Political Committee. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., January 10, 1991b.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Danish Embassy in Washington to Danish MFA. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., January 14, 1991c.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Danish Embassy in Washington to Danish MFA. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., January 17, 1991d.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., February 4, 1991e.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). American Statement at Polads Meeting. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., February 19, 1991f.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., April 24, 1991g.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Speaking notes for Uffe Ellemann-Jensen, to be used at a meeting with US Secretary of State James Baker. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., June 5, 1991h.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Med ulovlig hastighed. Unofficial Translation to Danish of Icelandic Article DV. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a. (Ad-file), August 28, 1991i.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Danish Embassy in Reykjavik to Danish MFA. Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., September 3, 1991j.
  • Udenrigsministeriet (Danish MFA). Notits (Danish MFA Memorandum). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 5.K.82.a., April 22, 1992.
  • Udenrigspolitiske Nævn (Foreign Relations Committee). Optegnelser (MFA Notes). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 3.E.92, January 15, 1991a.
  • Udenrigspolitiske Nævn (Foreign Relations Committee). Optegnelser (MFA Notes). Rigsarkivet (RA), Udenrigsministeriet (UM), 3.E.92, August 19, 1991b.
  • Villaume, Poul. “Denmark and NATO through 50 Years.” In Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 1999, edited by Bertel Heurlin and Hans Mouritzen, 29–61. Copenhagen: DIIS, 1999.
  • Waltz, Kenneth. Theory of International Politics. Addison-Wesley Series in Political Science. Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1979.
  • Wendt, A. “Collective Identity Formation and the International State.” The American Political Science Review 88, no. 2 (1994): 384–396. doi:10.2307/2944711.
  • The White House. “Remarks by President Obama and Prime Minister Thorning-Schmidt of Denmark after a Bilateral Meeting.” February 24, 2012. Accessed 2 January 2020. https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/02/24/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-thorning-schmidt-denmark-afte
  • Wivel, Anders. “Between Paradise and Power: Denmark’s Transatlantic Dilemma.” Security Dialogue 36, no. 3 (2005): 417–421.
  • Wivel, Anders. “Still Living in the Shadow of 1864. Danish Foreign Policy Doctrines and the Origins of Denmark’s Pragmatic Activism.” In Danish Foreign Policy Yearbook 2014, edited by Nanna Hvidt and Hans Mouritzen, 109–139. Copenhagen: DIIS, 2014.
  • Wright, Helen. 2016. “For David against Goliath: Iceland’s Support for Baltic Independence.” Deep Baltic. Accessed February 22, 2021. https://deepbaltic.com/2016/06/17/for-david-against-goliath-icelands-support-for-baltic-independence/

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.