Congruent Prosody Reduces Cognitive Effort in Memory for Spoken Sentences: A Pupillometric Study with Young and Older Adults

References

• Amichetti, N. M., Neukam, J., Kinney, A. J., Capach, N., March, S. U., Svirsky, M. A., & Wingfield, A. (2021). Adults with cochlear implants can use prosody to determine the clausal structure of spoken sentences. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 150(6), 4315–4328. doi:10.1121/10.0008899
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aston-Jones, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: Adaptive gain and optimal performance. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28(1), 403–450. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135709
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayasse, N. D., & Wingfield, A. (2018). A tipping point in listening effort: Effects of linguistic complexity and age related hearing loss on sentence comprehension. Trends in Hearing, 22, 2331216518790907. doi:10.1177/2331216518790907
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayasse, N. D., & Wingfield, A. (2020). Anticipatory baseline pupil diameter is sensitive to differences in hearing thresholds. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2947. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02947
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. D. (2012). Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 63(1), 1–29. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ) the psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). London, UK: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bates, D., Kliegl, R., Vasishth, S., & Baayen, H. (2015). Parsimonious mixed models. arXiv preprint arXiv:1506.04967.
   Google Scholar
• Beach, C. (1991). The interpretation of prosodic patterns at points of syntactic structure ambiguity: Evidence for cue trading relations. Journal of Memory and Language, 30(6), 627–643. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(91)90030-N
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatty, J., & Lucero-Wagoner, B. (2000). The pupillary system. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 142–162). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bitsios, P., Prettyman, R., & Szabadi, E. (1996). Changes in autonomic function with age: A study of pupillary kinetics in healthy young and old people. Age and Ageing, 25(6), 432–438. doi:10.1093/ageing/25.6.432
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blasko, D. G., & Hall, M. D. (1998). Influence of prosodic boundaries on comprehension of spoken English sentences. Perception and Motor Skills, 87(1), 3–18. doi:10.2466/pms.1998.87.1.3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. (2005). Aging and verbal memory span: A meta-analysis. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 60(5), 223–233. doi:10.1093/geronb/60.5.P223
   Google Scholar
• Bower, G. H., & Springston, F. (1970). Pauses as recoding points in letter series. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 83(3, Pt.1), 421–430. doi:10.1037/h0028863
   Google Scholar
• Breitenstein, C., Van Lancker, D., & Daum, I. (2010). The contribution of speech rate and pitch variation to the perception of vocal emotions in a German and an American sample. Cognition and Emotion, 15(1), 57–79. doi:10.1080/02699930126095
   Google Scholar
• Burg, E. A., Thakkar, T., Fields, T., Misurelli, S. M., Kuchinsky, S. E. … Litovsky, R. Y. (2021). Systematic comparison of trial exclusion criteria for pupillometry data analysis in individuals with single-sided deafness and normal hearing. Trends in Hearing, 25, 23312165211013256. doi:10.1177/23312165211013256
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan, D., & Waters, G. S. (1999). Verbal working memory and sentence comprehension. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(1), 77–126. doi:10.1017/S0140525X99001788
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter, P. A., Miyake, A., & Just, M. A. (1994). Working memory constraints in comprehension: Evidence from individual differences, aphasia, and aging. In M. Gernsbacher (Ed.), Handbook of psycholinguistics (pp. 1075–1122). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cerella, J. (1994). Generalized slowing and Brinley plots. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 49(2), 65–P71. doi:10.1093/geronj/49.2.P65
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, G., & Faulkner, D. (1983). Word recognition: Age differences in contextual facilitation effects. British Journal of Psychology, 74(2), 239–251. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1983.tb01860.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Crowe, S. F. (2000). Does the letter number sequencing task measure anything more than digit span? Assessment, 7(2), 113–117. doi:10.1177/107319110000700202
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19(4), 450–466. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6
   Google Scholar
• Daneman, M., & Merikle, P. M. (1996). Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 3(4), 422–433. doi:10.3758/BF03214546
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeCaro, R., Peelle, J. E., Grossman, M., & Wingfield, A. (2016). The two sides of sensory-cognitive interactions: Effects of age, hearing acuity, and working memory span on sentence comprehension. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 236. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckert, M. A., Teuber-Rhodes, S., & Vaden, K. I. (2016). Is listening in noise worth it? The neurobiology of speech recognition in challenging listening conditions. Ear and Hearing, 37(Suppl 1), 101S–110S. doi:10.1097/AUD.0000000000000300
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Engelhardt, P. E., Ferreira, F. & Patsenko, E. G. (2010). Pupillometry reveals processing load during spoken language comprehension. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63(4), 639–645. doi:10.1080/17470210903469864
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fallon, M., Kuchinsky, S., & Wingfield, A. (2004). The salience of linguistic clauses in young and older adults’ running memory for speech. Experimental Aging Research, 30(4), 359–371. doi:10.1080/03610730490484470
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisk, J. E., & Sharp, C. A. (2004). Age-related impairment in executive functioning: Updating, inhibition, shifting, and access. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26(7), 874–890. doi:10.1080/13803390490510680
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fodor, J. A., Bever, T. G., & Garrett, M. F. (1974). The psychology of language: An introduction to psycholinguistics and generative grammar. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Gagl, B., Hawelka, S., & Hutzler, F. (2011). Systematic influence of gaze position on pupil size measurement: Analysis and correction. Behavior Research Methods, 43(4), 1171–1181. doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0109-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrett, M. F., Bever, T. G., & Fodor, J. A. (1966). The active use of grammar in speech perception. Perception and Psychophysics, 1(1), 30–32. doi:10.3758/BF03207817
   Google Scholar
• Gates, G. A., Anderson, M. L., McCurry, S. M., Feeney, M. P., & Larson, E. B. (2011). Central auditory dysfunction as a harbinger of Alzheimer’s dementia. Archives of Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery, 137(4), 390–395. doi:10.1001/archoto.2011.28
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gilzenrat, M. S., Nieuwenhuis, S., Jepma, M., & Cohen, J. D. (2010). Pupil diameter tracks changes in control state predicted by the adaptive gain theory of locus coeruleus function. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience, 10(2), 252–269. doi:10.3758/CABN.10.2.252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon-Salant, S., & Fitzgibbons, P. J. (1993). Temporal factors and speech recognition performance in young and elderly listeners. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36(6), 1276–1285. doi:10.1044/jshr.3606.1276
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gordon-Salant, S., Shader, M. J., & Wingfield, A. (2020). Age-related changes in speech understanding: Peripheral versus cognitive influences. In K. S. Helfer, E. L. Bartlett, A. N. Popper, & R. R. Fays, Eds. Aging and hearing, Springer handbook of auditory research 72pp. 199–230. 10.1007/978-3-030-49367-7_9.
   Google Scholar
• Guillon, M., Dumbleton, K., Theodoratos, P., Gobbe, M., Wooley, C. B., & Moody, K. (2016). The effects of age, refractive status, and luminance on pupil size. Optometry and Vision Science, 93(9), 1093–1100. doi:10.1097/OPX.0000000000000893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, T. R., & Petrov, A. A. (2016). Mapping and correcting the influence of gaze position on pupil size measurements. Behav Res, 48(2), 510–527. doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0588-x.
   Google Scholar
• Hegarty, M., Shah, P., & Miyake, A. (2000). Constraints on using the dual-task methodology to specify the degree of central executive involvement in cognitive tasks. Memory and Cognition, 28(3), 376–385. doi:10.3758/BF03198553
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helfer, K. S., & Freyman, R. L. (2008). Aging and speech-on-speech masking. Ear and Hearing, 29(1), 87–98. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e31815d638b
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hershman, R., Henik, A., & Cohen, N. (2018). A novel blink detection method based on pupillometry noise. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 107–114. doi:10.3758/s13428-017-1008-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoeks, B., & Levelt, W. (1993). Pupillary dilation as a measure of attention.: A quantitative system analysis. Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 25(1), 16–26. doi:10.3758/BF03204445
   Google Scholar
• Holland, M. K., & Tarlow, G. (1972). Blinking and mental load. Psychological Reports, 31(1), 119–127. doi:10.2466/pr0.1972.31.1.119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoyte, K. J., Brownell, H., & Wingfield, A. (2009). Components of speech prosody and their use in detection of syntactic structure by older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 35(1), 129–151. doi:10.1080/03610730802565091
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humes, L. E., Busey, T. A., Craig, J., & Kewley-Port, D. (2013). Are age-related changes in cognitive function driven by age-related changes in sensory processing? Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 75(3), 508–524. doi:10.3758/s13414-012-0406-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jarvella, R. J. (1971). Syntactic processing of connected speech. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10(4), 409–416. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80040-3
   Google Scholar
• Jarvella, R. J. (1979). Immediate memory and discourse processing. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 13, pp. 379–421). New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, D. A. (1971). Pupillary responses during a short-term memory task: Cognitive processing, arousal, or both? Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90(2), 311–318. doi:10.1037/h0031562
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1993). The intensity dimension of thought: Pupillometric indices of sentence processing. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 47(2), 310–339. doi:10.1037/h0078820
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahana, M. J., Howard, M., Zaromb, F., & Wingfield, A. (2002). Age dissociates recency and lag recency effects in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28(3), 530–540. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.530
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahana, M. J., & Wingfield, A. (2000). A functional relation between learning and organization in free recall. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 7(3), 516–521. doi:10.3758/BF03214365
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D. (1973). Attention and effort. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D., & Beatty, J. (1966). Pupil diameter and load on memory. Science, 154(3756), 1583–1585. doi:10.1126/science.154.3756.1583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, J. (2002). Handbook of clinical audiology (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
   Google Scholar
• Kausler, D. M. (1994). Learning and memory in normal aging. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kempler, D., & Zelinski, E. M. (1994). Language in dementia and normal aging. In A. Huppert, C. Brayne, & D. W. O’Connor (Eds.), Dementia and normal aging (pp. 331–364). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, M., Beversdorf, D. Q., & Heilman, K. M. (2000). Arousal response with aging: Pupillographic study. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6(3), 348–350. doi:10.1017/S135561770000309X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinner, V. L., Kuchinke, L., Dierolf, A. M., Merz, C. J., Otto, T., & Wolf, O. T. (2017). What our eyes tell us about feelings: Tracking pupillary responses during emotion regulation processes. Psychophysiology, 54(4), 508–518. doi:10.1111/psyp.12816
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kjelgaard, M. M., & Speer, S. R. (1999). Prosodic facilitation and interference in the resolution of temporary syntactic closure ambiguity. Journal of Memory and Language, 40(2), 153–194. doi:10.1006/jmla.1998.2620
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kjelgaard, M. M., Titone, D. A., & Wingfield, A. (1999). The influence of prosodic structure on the interpretation of temporary syntactic ambiguity by young and elderly listeners. Experimental Aging Research, 25(3), 187–207. doi:10.1080/036107399243986
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koelewijn, T., Zekveld, A. A., Festen, J. M., & Kramer, S. E. (2012). Pupil dilation uncovers extra listening effort in the presence of a single-talker masker. Ear and Hearing, 33(2), 291–300. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e3182310019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuchinsky, S. E., Ahlstrom, J. B., Cute, S. L., Humes, L. E., Dubno, J. R., & Eckert, M. (2014). Speech-perception training for older adults with hearing loss impacts word recognition and effort. Psychophysiology, 51(10), 1046–1057. doi:10.1111/psyp.12242
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuchinsky, S. E., Ahlstrom, J. B., Vaden, K. I., Cute, S. L., Humes, L. E., Dubno, J. R., & Eckert, M. A. (2013). Pupil size varies with word listening and response selection difficulty in older adults with hearing loss. Psychophysiology, 50(1), 23–34. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01477.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christensen, R. H. B. (2015). Package ‘lmertest’. R Package Version, 2, 734.
   Google Scholar
• Lash, A., Rogers, C. S., Zoller, A., & Wingfield, A. (2013). Expectation and entropy in spoken word recognition: Effects of age and hearing acuity. Experimental Aging Research, 39(3), 235–253. doi:10.1080/0361073X.2013.779175
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, Y., Wingfield, A., Min, N. E., Jester, C., Kotloff, E., Grossman, M., & Peelle, J. E. (2018). Differences in hearing acuity among “normal-hearing” young adults modulate the neural basis for speech comprehension. eNeuro, 5(3), ENEURO.0263–17.2018. doi:10.1523/ENEURO.0263-17.2018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, F. R. (2011). Hearing loss and cognition among older adults in the United States. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, 66A(10), 1131–1136. doi:10.1093/gerona/glr115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindenberger, U., & Ghisletta, P. (2009). Cognitive and sensory declines in old age: Gauging the evidence for a common cause. Psychology and Aging, 24(1), 1–16. doi:10.1037/a0014986/
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, F. R., Metter, E. J., O’Brien, R. J., Resnick, S. M., Zonderman, A. B., & Ferrucci, L. (2011). Hearing loss and incident dementia. Archives of Neurology, 68(2), 214–220. doi:10.1001/archneurol.2010.362
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maharani, A., Pendleton, N., & Leroi, I. (2019). Hearing impairment, loneliness, social isolation, and cognitive function: Longitudinal analysis using English longitudinal study on ageing. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(12), 1348–1356. doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2019.07.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marslen-Wilson, W., & Tyler, L. K. (1980). The temporal structure of spoken language understanding. Cognition, 8(1), l–71. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(80)90015-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marslen-Wilson, W., Tyler, L. K., Warren, P., Grenier, P., & Lee, C. S. (1992). Prosodic effects in minimal attachment. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45A(1), 73–87. doi:10.1080/14640749208401316
   Google Scholar
• McCabe, D. P., Roediger, H. L., McDaniel, M. A., Balota, D. A., & Hambrick, D. Z. (2010). The relationship between working memory capacity and executive functioning: Evidence for a common executive attention construct. Neuropsychology, 24(2), 222–243. doi:10.1037/a0017619
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarrigle, R., Munro, K. J., Dawes, P., Stewart, A. J., Moore, D. R., Barry, J. G., & Amitay, S. (2014). Listening effort and fatigue: What exactly are we measuring? A British society of audiology cognition in hearing special interest group ‘white paper’. International Journal of Audiology, 53(7), 433–445. doi:10.3109/14992027.2014.890296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin, D. J., Zink, M. E., Gaunt, L., Spehar, B., Van Engen, K. J., Sommers, M. S., & Peelle, J. E. (2022). Pupillometry reveals cognitive demands of lexical competition. during spoken word recognition in young and older adults. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 29(1), 268–280. doi:10.3758/s13423-021-01991-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–96. doi:10.1037/h0043158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moradi, S., Lidestam, B., Hällgren, M., & Rönnberg, J. (2014). Gated auditory speech perception in elderly hearing aid users and elderly normal-hearing individuals: Effects of hearing impairment and cognitive capacity. Trends in Hearing, 18, 1–12. doi:10.1177/2331216514545406
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morett, L. M., Roche, J. M., Fraundorf, S. H., & Mc Partland, J. C. (2020). Contrast is in the eye of the beholder: Infelicitous beat gesture increases cognitive load during online spoken discourse comprehension. Cognitive Science, 44(10), e12912. doi:10.1111/cogs.12912
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naveh-Benjamin, M., Craik, F. I. M., Guez, J., & Kreuger, S. (2005). Divided attention in younger and older adults: Effects of strategy and relatedness on memory performance and secondary task costs. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31(3), 520–537. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.3.520
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nooteboom, S. (1997). The prosody of speech: Melody and rhythm. In W. J. Hardcastle & J. Laver (Eds.), The handbook of phonetic sciences (pp. 640–673). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Norman, S., Kemper, S., Kynette, D., Cheung, H., & Anagnopoulos, C. (1991). Syntactic complexity and adults’ running memory span. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, 346–P351. doi:10.1093/geronj/46.6.P346
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pals, C., Sarampalis, A., & Baskent, D. (2013). Listening effort with cochlear implant simulations. Journal of Speech, Language, & Hearing Research, 56(4), 1075–1084. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2012/12-0074)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peavler, W. S. (1974). Pupil size, information overload, and performance differences. Psychophysiology, 11(5), 559–566. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1974.tb01114.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Schneider, B. A., & Daneman, M. (1995). How young and old adults listen to and remember speech in noise. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97(1), 593–608. doi:10.1121/1.412282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquado, T., Isaacowitz, D., & Wingfield, A. (2010). Pupillometry as a measure of cognitive effort in younger and older adults. Psychophysiology, 47(3), 560–569. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00947.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Postle, B. R. (2006). Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain. Neuroscience, 139(1), 23–38. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reilly, J., Kelly, A., Kim, S. H., Jett, S., & Zuckerman, B. (2019). The human task-evoked pupillary response function is linear: Implications for baseline response scaling in pupillometry. Behavior Research Methods, 51(2), 865–878. doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1134-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richter, M. (2016). The moderating effect of success importance on the relationship between listening demand and listening effort. Ear & Hearing, 37(1), 111S–117S. doi:10.1097/AUD.0000000000000295
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rosenfield, M., Jahan, S., Nunez, K., & Chan, K. (2015). Cognitive demand, digital screens and blink rate. Computers in Human Behavior, 51, 403–406. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.04.073
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (1994). The aging of working memory. Neuropsychology, 8(4), 535. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535
   Google Scholar
• Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103(3), 403–428. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarampalis, A., Kalluri, S., Edwards, B., & Hafter, E. (2009). Objective measures of listening effort: Effects of background noise and noise reduction. Journal of Speech, Language, & Hearing Research, 52(5), 1230–1240. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0111)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shattuck-Hufnagel, S., & Turk, A. E. (1996). A prosody tutorial for investigators of auditory sentence processing. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 25(2), 193–247. doi:10.1007/BF01708572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, R., & Wingfield, A. (2009). Hearing loss and cognitive effort in older adults’ report accuracy for verbal materials. Journal of the American Academy of Audiology, 20(2), 147–154. doi:10.3766/jaaa.20.2.7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stine, E. A. L., & Hindman, J. (1994). Age differences in reading time allocation for propositionally dense sentences. Aging, Neuropsychology & Cognition, 1(1), 2–16. doi:10.1080/09289919408251446
   Google Scholar
• Stine, E. L., & Wingfield, A. (1987). Process and strategy in memory for speech among younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 2(3), 272–279. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.2.3.272
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strand, J. F., Ray, L., Dillman-Hasso, N. H., Vilanueva, J., & Brown, V. A. (2021). Understanding speech and the jingle and jangle: Recommendations for improving measurement practices in listening effort research. Auditory Perception and Cognition. doi:10.1080/25742442.2021.1903293
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sun, W. S., Baker, R. S., Chuke, J. C., Rouholiman, B. R., Hasan, S. A. … Porter, J. D. (1997). Age-related changes in human blinks. Passive and active changes in eyelid kinematics. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, 38(1), 92–99.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Titone, D. A., Koh, C. K., Kjelgaard, M. M., Bruce, S., Speer, S. R., & Wingfield, A. (2006). Age- related impairments in the revision of syntactic misanalyses: Effects of prosody. Language and Speech, 49(1), 75–99. doi:10.1177/00238309060490010501
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tulving, E. (1962). Subjective organization in free recall of “unrelated” words. Psychological Review, 69(4), 344–354. doi:10.1037/h0043150
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tun, P. A., McCoy, S., & Wingfield, A. (2009). Aging, hearing acuity, and the attentional costs of effortful listening. Psychology and Aging, 24(3), 761–766. doi:10.1037/a0014802
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tun, P. A., O’Kane, G., & Wingfield, A. (2002). Distraction by competing speech in young and older adult listeners. Psychology and Aging, 17(3), 453–467. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.3.453
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Wel, P., & Steenbergen, H. (2018). Pupil dilation as an index of effort in cognitive control tasks: A review. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 25(6), 2005–2015. doi:10.3758/s13423-018-1432-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verhaeghen, P. (2003). Aging and vocabulary score: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 18(2), 332–339. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.18.2.332
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verney, S. P., Granholm, E., & Marshall, S. P. (2004). Pupillary responses on the visual backward masking task reflect general cognitive ability. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 52(1), 23–26. doi:10.1016/j.ijpyscho.2003.12.00
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, M., & Watson, D. G. (2010). Experimental and theoretical advances in prosody: A review. Language and Cognitive Processes, 25(7–9), 905–945. doi:10.1080/01690961003589492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wales, R., & Toner, H. (1979). Intonation and ambiguity. In W. E. Cooper & E. C. Walker (Eds.), Sentence processing: Psycholinguistic studies presented to Men’ill Garrett (pp. 135–158). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. (2001). Age, working memory, and on-line syntactic processing in sentence comprehension. Psychology and Aging, 16(1), 128–144. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.16.1.128
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (1997). Weschler adult intelligence scale—WAIS III (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
   Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., Aberdeen, J. S., & Stine, E. A. L. (1991). Word onset gating and linguistic context in spoken word recognition by young and elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46(3), 127–P129. doi:10.1093/geronj/46.3.P127
   Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., Lahar, C. J., & Stine, E. A. L. (1989). Age and decision strategies in running memory for speech: Effects of prosody and linguistic structure. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 44(4), 106–113. doi:10.1093/geronj/44.4.P106
   Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., & Lash, A. (2016). Audition and the comprehension of spoken language in adult aging: Stability in the face of change. In K. W. Schaie & S. Willis (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (8th ed., pp. 165–185). London: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., Lindfield, K. C., & Goodglass, H. (2000). Effects of age and hearing sensitivity on the use of prosodic information in spoken word recognition. Journal of Speech, Language, & Hearing Research, 43(4), 915–925. doi:10.1044/jslhr.4304.915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., Lindfield, K. C., & Kahana, M. J. (1998). Adult age differences in the temporal characteristics of category free recall. Psychology and Aging, 13(2), 256–266. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.13.2.256
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., Poon, L. W., Lombardi, L., & Lowe, D. (1985). Speed of processing in normal aging: Effects of speech rate, linguistic structure and processing time. Journal of Gerontology, 40(5), 579–585. doi:10.1093/geronj/40.5.579
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wingfield, A., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2000). Language and speech. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse Eds., Handbook of aging and cognition. 2nd.pp. 359–416. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., Tun, P. A., Koh, C. K., & Rosen, M. J. (1999). Regaining lost time: Adult aging and the effect of time restoration on recall of time-compressed speech. Psychology and Aging, 14(3), 380–389. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.14.3.380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wingfield, A., Wayland, S. C., & Stine, E. A. L. (1992). Adult age differences in the use of prosody for syntactic parsing and recall of spoken sentences. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 47(5), 350–356. doi:10.1093/geronj/47.5.P350
   Google Scholar
• Winn, M. B. (2016). Rapid release from listening effort resulting from semantic context, and effects of spectral degradation and cochlear implants. Trends in Hearing, 20, 2331216516669723. doi:10.1177/2331216516669723
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winn, M. B., & Teece, K. H. (2021). Listening effort is not the same as speech intelligibility score. Trends in Hearing, 25, 233121652110276. doi:10.1177/23312165211027688
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winn, M. B., Wendt, D., Koelewijn, T., & Kuchinsky, S. E. (2018). Best practices and advice for using pupillometry to measure listening effort: An introduction for those who want to get started. Trends in Hearing, 22, 1–32. doi:10.1177/2331216518800869
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, J. G., & Hassett, J. (1983). Eyeblinking during problem solving: The effect of problem difficulty and internally vs externally directed attention. Psychophysiology, 20(1), 18–20. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1983.tb00893.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zachary, R. A. (1991). Manual of the shipley institute of living scale. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
   Google Scholar
• Zekveld, A. A., Koelewijn, T., & Kramer, S. E. (2018). The pupil dilation response to auditory stimuli: Current state of knowledge. Trends in Hearing, 22, 1–25. doi:10.1177/2331216518777174
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zekveld, A. A., & Kramer, S. E. (2014). Cognitive processing load across a wide range of listening conditions: Insights from pupillometry. Psychophysiology, 51(3), 277–284. doi:10.1111/psyp.12151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zekveld, A. A., Kramer, S. E., & Festen, J. M. (2010). Pupil response as an indication of effortful listening: The influence of sentence intelligibility. Ear and Hearing, 31(4), 480–490. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e3181d4f251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zénon, A., Sidibé, M., & Olivier, E. (2014). Pupil size variations correlate with physical effort perception. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 286. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, S., Bury, G., Milne, A., & Chait, M. (2019). Pupillometry as an objective measure of sustained attention in young and older listeners. Trends in Hearing, 23, 1–21. doi:10.1177/2331216519887815
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar