Social support and digital inequality: Does Internet use magnify or mitigate traditional inequities in support availability?

References

• Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Amichai-Hamburger, Y., & Hayat, Z. (2011). The impact of the Internet on the social lives of users: A representative sample from 13 countries. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 585–589. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bertera, E. M. (2005). Mental health in US adults: The role of positive social support and social negativity in personal relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 22, 33–48. doi:10.1177/0265407505049320
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolger, N., Zuckerman, A., & Kessler, R. C. (2000). Invisible support and adjustment to stress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 953–961. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.953
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chatman, E. (1991). Life in a small world: Applicability of gratification theory to information-seeking behavior. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 42, 438–449. doi: 0.1002/(SICI)1097-4571
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, W., & Wellman, B. (2005). Minding the cyber-gap: The Internet and social inequality. In M. Romero & E. Margolis (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to social inequalities (pp. 523–545). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., Gottlieb, B., & Underwood, B. (2000). Social relationships and health. In S. Cohen, B. H. Gottlieb, & L. G. Underwood (Eds.), Social support measurement and interventions: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 3–25). New York, NY: Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., Underwood, L., & Gottlieb, B. (2000). Social support measurement and interventions: A guide for health and social scientists. New York, NY: Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Cutrona, C. E. (1990). Stress and social support – In search of optimal matching. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 3–14.
   Google Scholar
• Cutrona, C. E., & Russell, D. W. (1990). Type of social support and specific stress: Toward a theory of optimal matching. In B. R. Sarason, I. G. Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view (pp. 319–366). Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• DiMaggio, P., Hargittai, E., Neuman, W. R., & Robinson, J. P. (2001). Social implications of the Internet. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 307–336. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.307
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldsmith, D. J. (2004). Communicating social support. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Granovetter, M. S. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360–1380. doi:10.1086/225469
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruenewald, T. L., & Seeman, T. E. (2010). Social support and physical health: Links and mechanisms. In A. Steptoe (Ed.), Handbook of behavioral medicine (pp. 224–236). New York, NY: Springer Science.
   Google Scholar
• Hampton, K., Goulet, L. S., Rainie, L., & Purcell, K. (2011). Social networking sites and our lives. Pew Internet and American Life Project. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org
   Google Scholar
• Hargittai, E. (2003). The digital divide and what to do about it. In D. C. Jones (Ed.), New economy handbook (pp. 822–841). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hargittai, E., & Hinnant, A. (2008). Digital inequality: Differences in young adults’ use of the Internet. Communication Research, 35, 602–621. doi:10.1177/0093650208321782
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helgeson, V. S. (1993). Two important distinctions in social support: Kind of support and perceived vs. received. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 825–845. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01008.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine, 7, e1000316. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaczmarek, L. D., & Krazkowski, D. (2014). MMORPG escapism predicts decreased well-being: Examination of game time, game realism beliefs, and online social support for offline problems. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17, 298–302. doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0595
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, J. E., & Rice, R. E. (2002). Social consequences of Internet use: Access, involvement and interaction. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, E., Han, J. Y., Shah, D., Shaw, B., McTavish, F., Gustafson, D. H., & Fan, D. (2011). Predictors of supportive message expression and reception in an interactive cancer communication system. Journal of Health Communication, 16, 1106–1121. doi:10.1080/10810730.2011.571337
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V., & Crawford, A. (2002). Internet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 49–75. doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakey, B., & Cassady, P. B. (1990). Cognitive processes in perceived social support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 337–343. doi:10.1177/0146167296229004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakey, B., & Cohen, S. (2000). Social support theory and measurement. In S. Cohen, L. Underwood, & B. Gottlieb (Eds.), Measuring and intervening in social support (pp. 29–52). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lin, N., Ye, X., & Ensel, W. M. (1999). Social support and depressed mood: A structural analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 40, 344–359. doi: 10.2307/2676330
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, C., & Yu, C. (2013). Can Facebook induce well-being? Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 16, 674–678. doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0301
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahapatra, N., & Schatz, M. C. (2015). Social networking among health sciences university students: Examining social network usage, social support, and general well-being. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 6, 618–629. doi:10.1080/10911359.2015.1011253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manago, A. M., Taylor, T., & Greenfield, P. M. (2012). Me and my 400 friends: The anatomy of college students’ Facebook networks, their communication patterns, and well-being. Developmental Psychology, 48, 369–380. doi:10.1037/a0026338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsden, P. V. (1987). Core discussion networks of Americans. American Sociological Review, 52, 122–131. doi:10.2307/2095397
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarty, C., Killworth, P. D., Bernard, H. R., Johnsen, E. C., & Shelley, G. A. (2001). Comparing two methods for estimating network size. Human Organization, 60, 28–39. doi:10.17730/humo.60.1.efx5t9gjtgmga73y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCormick, T. H., Salganik, M. J., & Zheng, T. (2010). How many people do you know? Efficiently estimating personal network size. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 105, 59–70. doi:10.1198/jasa.2009.ap08518
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merton, R. K. (1968). The Matthew effect in science. Science, 159, 56–63. doi: 10.1126/science.159.3810.56
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikal, J. P., Rice, R. E., Abeyta, A., & DeVilbiss, J. (2013). Transition, stress and computer-mediated social support. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(5), A40–A53. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moak, Z. B., & Agrawal, A. (2010). The association between perceived interpersonal social support and physical and mental health: Results from the national epidemiological survey on alcohol and related conditions. Journal of Public Health, 32, 191–201. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdp093
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nabi, R. L., Prestin, A., & So, J. (2013). Facebook friends with (health) benefits? Exploring social network site use and perceptions of social support, stress, and well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16, 721–727. doi:10.1089/cyber.2012.0521
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oh, H. J., & Lee, B. (2012). The effect of computer-mediated social support in online communities on patient empowerment and doctor-patient interaction. Health Communication, 27, 30–41. doi:10.1080/10410236.2011.567449
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park, N. (2012). Social side of rural Internet use: Online communication, social support, and community satisfaction in a rural area. International Telecommunication Policy Review, 19, 46–64.
   Google Scholar
• Pearce, K. E., & Rice, R. E. (2013). Digital divides from access to activities: Comparing mobile and PC Internet users. Journal of Communication, 63, 741–755. doi:10.1111/jcom.12045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2010). SNS and Facebook survey 2010 [Data file and codebook].
   Google Scholar
• Rainie, L., & Wellman, B. (2012). Networked: The new social operating system. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rains, S. A., & Keating, D. M. (2011). The social dimension of blogging about health: Health blogging, social support, and well-being. Communication Monographs, 78, 511–534. doi:10.1080/03637751.2011.618142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rains, S. A., & Wright, K. B. (2016). Social support and computer-mediated communication: A state-of-the-art review and agenda for future research. In E. Cohen (Ed.), Communication yearbook (pp. 175–212). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ruppel, E. K., & McKinley, C. J. (2015). Social support and social anxiety in use and perceptions of online mental health resources: Exploring social compensation and enhancement. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18(8), 462–467. doi:10.1089/cyber.2014.0652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seeman, T. E., & Berkman, L. F. (1988). Structural characteristics of social networks and their relationship with social support in the elderly: Who provides support? Social Science and Medicine, 26, 737–749. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(88)90065-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw, B. A. (2005). Anticipated support from neighbors and physical functioning during later life. Research on Aging, 27, 503–525. doi:10.1177/0164027505277884
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw, B. A., Krause, N., Chatters, L. M., Connell, C. M., & Ingersoll-Dayton, B. (2004). Emotional support from parents early in life, aging, and health. Psychology and Aging, 19, 4–12. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.19.1.4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherbourne, C. D., & Stewart, A. L. (1991). The MOS social support survey. Social Science & Medicine, 32, 705–714. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(91)90150-B
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1991). Connections: New ways of working in the networked organization. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tanis, M. (2008). What makes the Internet a place to seek social support. In E. A. Konijin, S. Utz, M. Tanis, & S. B. Barnes (Eds.), Mediated interpersonal communication (pp. 290–308). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, J. W., Grube, J. A., & Meyers, J. (2001). Developing an optimal match within online communities: An exploration of CMC support communities and traditional support. Journal of Communication, 51, 231–251. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2001.tb02879.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uchino, B. N. (2004). Social support and physical health: Understanding the health consequences of relationships. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Uchino, B. N. (2009). Understanding the links between social support and physical health: A lifespan perspective with emphasis on the separability of perceived and received support. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 4, 236–255. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01122.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Deursen, A., & van Dijk, J. (2014). Internet skill levels increase, but gaps widen: A longitudinal cross-sectional analysis (2010-2013) among the Dutch population. Information, Communication & Society, 18(7), 782–797. doi:10.1080/1369118X.2014.994544
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Dijk, J. A. (2005). The deepening divide: Inequality in the information society. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Wellman, B., Boase, J., & Chen, W. (2002). The networked nature of community on an off the Internet. IT and Society, 1, 151–165.
   Google Scholar
• Wethington, E., & Kessler, R. C. (1986). Perceived support, received support, and adjustment to stressful life events. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 27, 78–89. doi:10.2307/2136504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, K. B., & Bell, S. B. (2003). Health-related support groups on the Internet: Linking empirical findings to social support and computer-mediated communication theory. Journal of Health Psychology, 8, 37–52. doi:10.1177/1359105303008001429
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu, Y., & Burleson, B. R. (2001). Effects of sex, culture, and support type on perceptions of spousal social support: An assessment of the “support gap” hypothesis in early marriage. Human Communication Research, 27, 535–566. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2001.tb00792.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoo, W., Namkoong, K., Choi, M., Shah, D. V., Tsang, S., Hong, Y., … Gustafson, D. H. (2014). Giving and receiving emotional support online: Communication competence as a moderator of psychosocial benefits for women with breast cancer. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 13–22. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.07.024
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, S. (2006). Do Internet users have more social ties? A call for differentiated analyses of Internet use. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11, 844–862. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00038.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu, X., Woo, S. E., Porter, C. M., & Brzezinski, M. (2013). Pathways to happiness: From personality to social networks and perceived support. Social Networks, 35, 382–393. doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2013.04.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zillen, N., & Hargittai, E. (2009). Digital distinction: Status-specific types of Internet usage. Social Science Quarterly, 90, 274–279. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00617.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar